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由思想到文學，中國古代很早就形成「自成一家」的獨創性觀念及其習慣表述，並以「家數」概念為中介，在文學批評中形成大家、小家、名家等一系列品第概念。古人使用這些概念並沒有嚴格的定義，尤其是「大家」與「名家」，批評家對其分寸感的把握和對具體適用對象的聯想都有微妙的差異。本文試圖通過對古代文學批評史上有關資料的梳理，勾勒出前人對此的看法，以揭示中國古代文學批評的基本觀念及其尺度。

影片的悲剧感体现在多处，毕竟，以衰颓的城市、离散的家庭、贫困的生活为背景，这样的喜剧一定是混杂的风格。喜剧气氛被悲剧感所平衡，这使《钢的琴》完全区别于例如《非诚勿扰》等影片中葛优那种一味油滑、轻浮的喜剧路线

从"单位制" 的视角透视中国城市社会基层的组织制度和秩序的研究，一般被认为肇始于魏昂德的"新传统主义"模型。之后的讨论和工作主要围绕以下三方面的问题展开：1) "新传统主义" 与历史是什么关系?2)"新传统主义" 的适用范围究竟有多大?3)中国基层社会组织中的权力和权威关系到底是个什么样子?通过对这些问题的梳理和分析表明：问题的关键在于如何辩证地同时关注结构与文化、历史与现实之间的关系，真正深入到单位组织的变革现场，以把握中国基层社会的基本秩序结构。

本文系为章永乐著《旧邦新造：1911-1917》所写的序言（北京大学出版社即出），也是对2010年夏天北京大学法制研究中心与清华大学人文与社会科学高等研究所共同举办的关于辛亥革命的研讨会上的讨论的一个回应。2011年11月26日复旦思想史研究中心“历史与政治”年会主题发言。观察者网及《社会观察》杂志独家发布。

科学研究的起点是研究问题。提出有意义的研究问题往往要以质疑现有研究成果结论为基础，因此，研究人员必须进行文献回顾，即对相关研究领域的现有研究成果进行系统的梳理和分析。通过文献回顾，研究人员可以避免重复研究、无意义的研究，防止选择无法回答的问题并有助于找到前沿性问题。文献回顾包括三个步骤：查阅文献、选择文献和批判文献。作者结合国际关系理论研究的实例分析了三个步骤的具体内容和涉及的具体方法与技巧，这些讨论有助于研究人员熟悉和掌握文献回顾的内容和方法，提高国际关系研究的效率和水平。

选自作者继《丰饶的苦难》后又一部解析拉丁美洲文化的作品，2009年出版。

鲁迅说：“对于谣言，我是不会懊恼的，如果懊恼，每月就懊恼几回，也未必活到现在了。……倘有谣言，自己就懊恼，那就中了造谣者的计了。”（《致萧军》）“我现在得了妙法，是谣言不辩，诬蔑不洗，只管自己做事，而顺便中，则偶刺之。他们横竖就要消灭的。”（《致郑振铎》）他还说过：最高的轻蔑是无言，而且连眼珠也不转过去。无根的谣言不可能持久，制造谣言者及其主子“横竖就要消灭的”。

尽管从语言和经济学方面看，一本半个世纪以前写就的著作在今天可能会不大好理解，但波兰尼所提出的问题和视野并没有丧失它的卓越性。

中国文化若要健全，征兵则当然势在必行，但伪君子阶级也必须消灭。凡在社会占有地位的人，必须都是文武兼备，名副其实的真君子。非等此点达到，传统社会的虚伪污浊不能洗清。

中国价值是普遍价值的具体实践首先应该挑明的是，今天提出“全球视野下的中国价值”这个问题，就是要把“中国价值”放到“普世文明”的高度上和框架内来思考，把“中国价值”定义为当代中国人探索和创造普遍意义和普遍价值的集体实践。不然的话，所谓“普世文明”只能是一个空洞的概念，因为它会被种种流俗意见赋予同今天中国的集体实践相抵触、甚至对立的含义，渐渐地在人们心目中成为某种外在的、高高在上的、甚至不可企及的绝对标准。它会被用来挑剔、敲打和质疑当代中国人的集体实践，让我们处处怀疑自己行动和思考的正当性，处处要到别人那里去讨“说法”，而不是充满自信地去走自己的路，去创造、挖掘和认识属于这个时代的具有深远意义的价值。所以，我们在讨论这个问题时的第一个前提，就是要把所谓“普世文明”放到“中国价值”内部去把握，把“中国价值”确立为“普世文明”的具体实践，也就是说，后者的现实化和普遍化，有赖于前者的参与和探索，正如它有赖于其他社会、人民和文明形态的参与和探索。也只有这样，“普遍”才作为理想、作为有待实现的东西而真正成为普遍之物。否则，它不过是为强势文明所垄断的霸权符号。它的历史实质，恰恰是一些个别的、特殊的事物，而不是普遍性本身。另一方面，如果不在一个普遍性的高度上和框架里谈“中国价值”，这个问题也很容易落入一个概念的陷阱，仿佛我们今天要探索的“中国价值”仅仅是一种特殊“国情”，是中国人自己的事情，与他人无关，进而产生一种小富即安、夜郎自大的心态。在全球化的今天，人类的物质和精神交往已经达到这样的程度，任何偏安一隅、自给自足、与世无争的态度都是不现实的，甚至是危险的。且不说这种心态同中国日益深入地介入世界经济活动和政治生活的实际相悖，同全世界对“中国影响”和“中国因素”日益增长的期待（当然这种期待有正面的，也有负面的）相悖，它也会限制我们自身认识和思考“中国价值”的眼界和抱负。无论在经济领域、政治领域，还是文化领域，撇开“世界”和“普遍性”谈中国，都不会有真正的结果，因为，实际上“中国”本身早已存在于同“世界”错综复杂的关系之中，是现代世界最内在、最核心的问题和矛盾的有机组成部分。主观地、一厢情愿地把它抽离出来，再加上一圈防火墙，于“中国价值”是不相干的。我们前面强调“普世价值”要在“中国价值”内部去寻找，这里我们或许可以说，“中国价值”必然是“世界文明主流”的组成部分。中国几千年的文明形态，正是历史上“世界文明主流”的重要遗产；中国今后如果建立一个适合自己发展、对他人也有巨大魅力的文明形态，不过是“回到她原先的历史地位”。这句话，近年来常常出现在国际上对中国经济崛起的评论中，但仅凭国内生产总值（GDP）或人均收入，还不能造就文明形态意义上的“中国价值”，正如光有“大楼”没有“大师”就还算不上是“大学”。我们所谈的“中国价值”，归根结底需要作为一个“生活世界”和“生活形式”的概念，体现出中国全方位的活力、创造性和稳定性，需要中国人在“人”的终极含义上达到前所未有的高度。基于以上所说的前提预设，关于“中国价值”，我们现在能说的，大概就是两句话：一是“路在脚下”，不是别人为你开辟好的，而是要我们自己去走，正如鲁迅在《故乡》中所写，“这世上本没有路，走的人多了，便也成了路”；二是“任重而道远”——“中国价值”不是一蹴而就的东西，也不是随便走出来的道路，它需要中国人长期地锲而不舍地努力。我们距离对自己的期待还差得很远很远。中国价值是自主创造新的现实要回答什么是“中国价值”，我们就必须弄清我们所说的“全球视野”指的是什么，要意识到它像精神分析理论里所讲的那种“gaze”（他者的注视）一样，预先决定了我们对“中国价值”的想象。中国知识界已经有越来越多的人看到，如果我们只是以“中国特色”为方式，去完成别人对我们的角色预期，甚至把别人的注视“内在化”，变成自己行为的无意识结构，那我们即便在所谓“中国价值”上走，走的其实还是美国道路，或全球资本化道路。这个意义上的“中国价值”或“中国特色”就不是在创造一种新的现实，而是一种早已存在的制度的继发性延续乃至回光返照。在这个意义上谈特殊性，就根本逃不出自我东方化、异国情调化的逻辑，因为这无非是用筷子的资本主义和用刀叉的资本主义之间的差别，或“官僚资本主义”同“自由资本主义”之间的差别。按这种逻辑，所谓“价值”其实都是非历史、非政治的概念，它的“文化”概念归根到底也是“感伤”的、装饰性的，因为它并没有由自身的实践创造出来的价值内涵和真正的价值指向。如果“价值”不植根于一种具有新的普遍意义的劳动方式，不能塑造一种具有新的普遍意义的人的概念，它就只具有“抄近道”、“挑好走的走”的含义，根本上还是一种工具理性的逻辑。如果我们的问题仅限于此，那这个问题看似激进，甚至带有点儿挑战西方霸权、探索差异性和特殊性的味道，但其实也就是“接轨论”的另一面，即通过一种肤浅的，即非历史化、非政治化的多元论，用消费和娱乐领域的“文化”取代经济、政治、制度和价值领域的实质性冲突，客观上为更深层次的单一性和标准化辩护。德里克曾在对西方后殖民主义话语的分析中一针见血地指出，这种所谓“现代性替换性方案”（alternative modernity），无非是那些已经自非西方世界进入西方体制的、有着不同种族、宗教、族裔背景的精英阶层人士，以“文化”、“身份”和“认同”为名，在全球资本主义市场和主流意识形态里，试图为自己划出一块利益特区，并进一步挤入“中心”的修辞而已。如果“中国模式”已经预设了一个笼罩性的不可逾越的外部——无论它叫做“议会民主”、“自由市场”，还是“世界公民社会”，其实它的价值内涵同“中国”这个定语都并无实质关联，在一般意义上也谈不上是一条道路，因为这只是在走一条现成的、别人已经走过、甚至被别人规定了的道路。也许有人会说，如果这是一条能给绝大多数中国人带来幸福美好生活的道路，别人走过又有什么不好，又何必一定要强调自主性和独创性。但这种貌似实际而老到的思维恰恰是幼稚和异想天开。因为近代以来170年的经验告诉我们，实际上，从来就没有什么现成的药方可以解决今天中国所面临的一切问题；没有什么放诸四海皆准的制度或观念能使中国自动地走向富强和公正，而不需要让13亿中国人进行思索和选择。即便在经济技术领域，在“赶超”目标非常明确的方面，新技术、新制度、新观念的落地生根、开花结果，也都不得不经历复杂的再创造过程，最终的成功，往往并非照搬外国先进生产经验的结果，而是“理论与实践”相结合，然后产生出一种本土性的制度创新，激发出一种前所未有的能量、活力和创造性所致。在具体领域里实现的“中国价值”，从来不只是固有事物的复制，而是在实践中出现的新事物。只有如此，它的理论含义才能突破既有制度和观念的框框，而把自己确立为一个新的可能性的边界。在实用领域尚且如此，在社会领域、文化领域和观念领域就更是这样。不妨说，“中国价值”的题中应有之意，就是在理论上、哲学意义上不承认中国实践需要先验地接受任何既有的参照系。这么讲，当然不是要把当代中国的集体实践归入偶然性、唯意志论、甚至不可知论的领域，而是像前面我们已经谈到的那样，直接把“中国道路”放在“普遍性”的层面上和框架内来谈，也就是说，把“中国问题”直接理解为探索普遍意义和普遍价值的具体实践、具体展开和具体例证，从而在当代中国的具体实践中，去努力总结有益于全人类、有助于开拓人类历史远景的观念、价值和理论的东西。中国价值应跳出特殊论我在《全球化时代的文化认同——西方普遍主义话语的历史批判》这本书里比较系统地分析了德国理论，因此有一些读者认为我是在鼓吹德国特殊道路，以此来挑战英美自由主义的话语霸权，为中国特殊道路论输血打气。其实我在书中讨论的每一个思想家，从国内学界比较熟悉的康德、黑格尔和马克思，到也许还不太熟悉的尼采、韦伯和施米特（他们的确都是德国思想家），都指出了这种德国道路和德国特殊性的不可能性和虚妄性。所谓德国的“特殊道路”或“第三条道路”，主要是指普鲁士资产阶级把自身的权威政府定义为国家政治的“黄金准则”，以抗衡英美法为代表的“西方民主”和以沙俄为代表的“东方专制”。在批判德国市民阶级自欺欺人的幻想和庸人政治方面，马克思的语言最为尖锐和华丽，可谓上集黑格尔辩证思维之大成，下开尼采价值批判之先河。在早期著作里，马克思就曾警告德国市民阶级，文明有可能“没有分享欧洲文明的上升，就已经同它一道处在衰落的水平”（大意），在稍后的《资产阶级与反革命》一文中，马克思对此作了展开，这对我们今天思考以新兴城市中产阶级为具体经济、社会内容的“中国道路”，应该是颇具启发性和警醒意义的："德国资产阶级（即市民阶级。张按）……与 1789年法国的资产阶级不同，普鲁士的资产阶级并不是一个代表整个现代社会反对旧社会的代表，即反对君主制和贵族的阶级。它降到了一种等级的水平，既明确地反对国王又明确地反对人民，对国王和人民双方都采取敌对态度，但是在单独面对自己的每一个对手时态度都犹豫不决……它不相信自己，不相信人民，在上层面前嘟囔，在下层面前战栗，对两者都持利己主义态度，并且意识到自己的这种利己主义；对于保守派来说是革命的，对于革命派来说却是保守的；不相信自己的口号，用空谈代替思想，害怕世界风暴，同时又利用这个风暴来谋私利；毫无毅力，到处剽窃；因缺乏任何独特性而显得平庸，同时又因本身平庸而显得独特；自己跟自己讲价钱；没有首创精神，不相信自己，不相信人民，没有负起世界历史使命；活像一个受诅咒的老头，注定要糟踏健壮人民的最初勃发的青春激情而使其服从于自己风烛残年的利益……"（马克思《资产阶级和反革命》，《马克思恩格斯选集》，人民出版社，1995年版，第319-320页）马克思这里谈的，当然是1848年的柏林革命，他把这场革命同1648年英国革命和1789年法国革命相对照，指出前两场资产阶级革命因为其创造性（“资产阶级法权对中世纪特权的胜利”）而在历史上闪耀，柏林革命却“像遥远星球的光芒一样，在发出这种光芒的那个星球消失了十万年以后，才达到我们地球上居民的眼中”。甚至，和同时发生的1848年欧洲革命相比，柏林革命也只是“欧洲革命在一个落后国家里的微弱的回声”。近年来在国内引起关注的竹内好，通过他对鲁迅作品的创造性阅读，对日本近代化过程做出了深刻而激烈的批评（“优等生文化”；“既没有抵抗，也没有主体性，所以日本什么也没有”等等）。每一个“世界历史的民族”，都通过自身的社会实践和政治激情，通过劳动、牺牲和代价高昂的错误，为这个普遍性问题提供正反两方面的教训。今天中国人提出这个问题，某种意义上的确暗示了中国人新近获得的自信和使命感，暗示中国人又一次处在了想象或现实的“世界历史”的潮头，但“普世价值还是中国价值”这样的问题，如果不加以批判的辨析，就有可能局限而不是打开人们的思路。如果不在“普世文明”的层面上考虑“价值”问题，所谓“中国价值”，也就根本不是一个问题，因为那样的话，我们所说所想的其实都不带问号，而更像是设问句。比如，有一个叫做普世文明的东西摆在那里，你要还是不要？那回答自然只能有一个：要（谁会说不要呢）。从简单的语义和形式逻辑上讲，如果有“普世文明”或“普世价值”，就无所谓文明意义上的“中国价值”，因为后者最多只有手段或途径的意义，而没有目的或本体论的意义。这样的所谓中国价值或中国特殊性，就只能是常识性的东西：条条大路通罗马，你走你的阳关道，我走我的独木桥，但大家都是在奔同一个目标，想过同样的生活。那样的话，俄国人有俄国道路，印度人有印度道路，日本人有日本道路，新加坡人有新加坡道路，甚至可以说上海有上海道路，广东有广东道路。回头看20世纪中国的历史经验，我们知道，“价值”的含义是一种新的具有普遍意义的社会实验和创造，它对应着一种新的历史主体（“新人”）的出现，是“打破旧世界、建立新世界”的革命性集体行动，它必须同时具有明确的乌托邦指向和具体的实践上的可操作性。“走俄国人的路”或“延安道路”，就是这样意义上的“价值”；中国式的社会主义道路和改革开放，也必然是这样的道路，因为它不得不负起马克思所说的那种“世界历史的使命”。但在今天中国的知识界，关于“中国价值”的讨论，基本上仍是“中国崛起论”的文化版，它的物质前提是中国改革30年来经济上的成功，但要进一步追问“中国价值”的政治指向和文明指向，问题就变得模糊起来。在中国革命之前，中国是现代性条件下世界历史的客体或对象，是侵略、宰割、盘剥和操纵的对象，是变革和历史运动的被动的客体。通过中国革命，中国人第一次变成现代世界历史的主体，掌握自己的命运，决定自己的现在和未来。这个主权地位对外具有民族独立和解放的意义，对内具有人民主权以及由此而来的大众民主、正义和平等的意义。这些似乎都是老生常谈了，但实际上，在中国经济和社会生活展现出前所未有的活力和可能性的今天，越来越多的年轻人意识到，正是新中国的存在，为今天的一切提供了最基本的条件和保障。这一点特别明确地从海外中国学生爱国意识和政治意识的觉醒中体现出来，没有这种意识，2008年海外中国学生自发支持北京奥运会的反抗议活动是不可思议的。今天的中国，无疑处在自身历史上的“后革命时代”，但一个健全的、头脑清楚的后革命时代，必须对革命和毛泽东时代的社会主义国家作出明确的价值判断。我们必须看到，通过革命，中国人变成了一个全新的文化民族和政治民族；通过革命和建国后60年的建设，中国才真正作为一个现代国家，“屹立于世界民族之林”，并由此重新开始了关于文明形态、普世价值和“人”的终极意义的追问。这才是“中国价值”的关键所在。可以说，从中国革命开始，中国人就已经走在这条道路上了。在这个意义上，我们也可以说，如果没有中国革命，就没有作为文明形态意义上的“中国价值”问题，是这个伟大的历史变革，把大多数中国人抛入了世界历史，把我们同过去和未来联系在一起。（作者单位：美国纽约大学比较文学系）

这是个知识分子凋零的时代十年前，专门研究近代知识分子凋零现象，并以《最后的知识分子们》一书奠定地位的美国洛杉矶加州大学教授拉塞尔·雅各比（Russell Jecoby）在《乌托邦的终结：冷漠时代的政治与文化》一书里，重提19世纪英国浪漫主义大诗人华兹华斯的一段轶事：法国大革命失败，复辟当道，整个时代退潮，另一浪漫大诗人柯立芝致函华兹华斯："我希望你能写一首诗，一首白话诗，怜那些因为法国大革命失败，因而对人类的理想已经放弃，沉沦在伊壁鸠鲁派的自私，退化到只关心日常软性事务，对有愿景的大问题则嗤之以鼻的人。"受到激励，华兹华斯遂于1802年写了《伦敦》这首诗："米尔顿，你实在应该活在我们这样的时代，英格兰需要你，她已沦为一池死水的沼泽......啊，请唤醒我们，请重新回到我们这里，赐给我们格调、美德、自我和力量......"约翰?米尔顿系17世纪英国的自由先锋，在人类的自由发展史上是地位崇高的先行者。华兹华斯重提米尔顿，反映的是他对重振时代精神的盼望；而雅各比教授重提华兹华斯，表达的则是他对这个知识分子凋零时代的悲伤。"公共知识分子"这个词，即是雅各比教授所首创，他希望知识分子不要好高骛远只谈虚无飘渺的乌托邦，也不要冷漠近视只去耍弄一些对公众毫无意义的小聪明，而要去关心公众的中心问题。只是在目前这个冷漠的时代，他的期望似乎已成了微小的空谷足音，没有太大的回声！当今这个时代，"知识分子哪去了"已成了一个重大的问题。在过去，无论任何国家，知识分子都扮演着重要角色。以西方为例，后文艺复兴、理性启蒙、狂飙浪漫运动，一直到全球社会主义运动，历史有一大半都由知识分子带领完成。在中国，发展路径虽不相同，但古代士大夫阶层以天下为己任的传统，一直到近代国家救亡图存，知识分子同样扮演着重要角色。"知识分子"这个称谓，以前有着耀眼的光辉，但从第二次世界大战结束后迄今，基本上就是个知识分子凋零的过程。西方学者普遍认为，自从罗素、沙特等人相继逝世，大型知识分子的时代即已结束，如果勉强算，美国的乔姆斯基可说是知识分子这个光辉传统的最后一抹余晖。现在似乎到了"告别知识分子"的时候。 知识分子在"自我边缘化"？知识分子以前是时代车轮的主要推手，到了现在，知识分子的功能日益衰落，连带的是身份也日益丢失。我们不由得要问：究竟发生了什么事？首先要指出的，乃是今天西方的所谓知识分子是站在西方体制的对立面，因而多少都有一些社会主义的色彩。这种形左的亲合性，自然而然与国际社会主义拉上了关系，而国际社会主义的表现当然也影响到他们生存的条件。二战前的大战中，欧洲及美国知识分子在反法西斯方面，的确有过勇敢且杰出的表现，但战后苏联斯大林的表现，以及接下来的"布拉格之春"，直到后来的苏联解体，这些重大事件，等于剥夺了欧美左翼知识分子批判传统存在的合理性。战后欧美知识分子虽在法属阿尔及利亚的解放运动到反越战运动中有过突破性的进展，但青年过激势力的崛起，却只依然造成自我毁灭。在欧美世界，近代的通俗思想有"意识形态的终结"、"资本主义获得终极的胜利"和"历史的终结"，它所反映的，其实是任何形态的理想主义都被贴上"意识形态"这个污名化标签，而被驱逐出了思想的日程表。欧美的知识分子批判传统日益弱化，除了世界大结构的变化有着举足轻重的影响外，其实也和二战后西方社会经济、政治、文化等的变迁有关。在社会结构上，二战之后，社会重构，大学教育快速扩张，许多知识分子被征召进校园，参与到所谓校园学术中；而战后媒体工业发达，知识分子讲话的空间日益受到挤压；另外则是战后经济扩张，就业条件转佳，工作性质也在改变，知识分子此前的支持群众已开始变少；而可能更致命的，乃是随着社会的逐渐分化，新兴的"技术精英"（intelligentsia）已开始与传统的知识分子（intellectual）展开角色竞争。所有这些发展，都使得知识分子无法和过去一样，以单独的阶层或社会角色的身份而存在，加上二战后的都市快速向郊区扩张，连带着也使得私的领域变大，公的领域受关心的程度减少，知识分子纵使例行聚会也渐趋困难，想要扩大社会角色自然阻力更增。社会发展造成的结构改变，阻碍了知识分子社会角色的发挥，而更重要的还有更多知识分子"自我边缘化"的因素：一、此前，知识分子的知识理论都相信整个世界有它的整体性，但战后迄今，人们愈来愈认为每个人的不幸都是他个人出了问题，而不是社会的责任，因而造成了一种虚假的多元主义，人们再也不相信"整体性"这样的东西，"私"字抢现，"公"字退隐。现在这个时代，如果还有人"以天下为己任"， 他受到的揶揄一定远远多于喝彩。二、在愈来愈复杂和庸俗的世界，知识分子的视野也被诱导得愈来愈浅化了，这也充分反映在社会人文甚或艺术的课题上。近代政治、社会、人文的思考虽然杰出者不少，但很多只是自己小圈子高兴，与国计民生毫无关系。许多号称反叛者实际只是故弄玄虚，只会用激烈的言辞讲无人听得懂的话。知识分子的这种现象，有人称为"自恋"，有人说是"新虚无"，有人则说现在的知识分子与体制到底是对立或是共谋都已无法分清。古典知识分子关心人类的共同福祉，他们唱的是"大调"，现在的知识分子，特别是在校园内，只唱小圈子里自己喜欢却无甚意义的"小调"，人们当然对知识分子不再那么信服。知识分子把自己变得不那么重要，这是一种"自我边缘化"，它也与社会思想的平庸化，知识分子不能在广泛的思想上求新求进，因而发言权开始变小有关。当今世界，人们相信"没有研究，就没有发言权"这个终极价值，而知识分子在这方面无疑是失职了。三、最严重的，乃是随着网络的普及，发言权已达到了任何人只要不满都可透过网络表达的新阶段。这种假象的自由，造成一种反面后果，就是人们不再认为需要知识分子来代言。网络的兴起，其实是以另一种方式剥夺了知识分子的角色，知识分子已显得多余。今天的西方世界，知识分子已被边缘化，而同时知识分子也自我边缘化。但人们必须注意的是，社会是有"整体性"的，不会因为人们看不到就不存在，任何社会，当知识分子角色凋零，"整体性"的问题不受注意，社会的问题就会累积、恶化。当今全球放任资本主义当道，强者变成肥猫，可以为所欲为而不受约束，贫富差距日渐扩大，这一切，正将世界带到危险的状态。这些基本问题不去关心，仍兀自谈论种种虚无缥缈的课题，知识分子又怎会受到世人的重视？ 琐碎事务的极其用心与重大方向上无所用心西方知识分子从文艺复兴以来确实带动着人类的进步，贡献卓著，而我们也不能否认，近代由于国家间的权力争逐严重，知识分子的角色难免被现实政治所扭曲。也正因此，往后的知识分子角色，除了应致力于公平正义社会的追求外，还应追求全球的公平秩序。而要达到这些目标，知识分子自应格外努力，强化自己的发言力度，并超越技术精英那种见木不见林、有极大偏向性的技术或工具理性。当代世界秩序日益混乱，尤其是次贷风暴到全球金融海啸，已将美国资本主义那种累积性体制之弊尽显无疑，美国整个社会居然会让这种情况形成，它整体的非理性不是到了极其严重的地步吗？而知识分子不能在经济领域保有批判性，岂不正是一种致命的缺陷？近代欧美知识分子对攸关世界的重大问题几乎全部弃权，而对琐碎事务则极其用心，也表现出各式各样的小聪明。在琐碎事务上聪明，对重大方向的不合理却无所用其心，知识分子又岂能没有自我改变的重任呢？近年来，欧美对知识分子角色问题的讨论渐盛，它所反映的乃是整个社会对批判、反思及矫正力量缺乏所造成的现状之不满。任何社会都不能没有知识分子的力量制衡以矫正方向的偏差，但知识分子有时候好高骛远，容易将问题简化，成为狂热的乌托邦信徒；有时却又容易故弄玄虚，目光如豆。这乃是在乌托邦与近视症间摆荡的知识分子的过去。知识分子亟待重建道德良知、批判的知识水准，以及对世界与社会的关怀。西方知识分子被边缘化和自我边缘化久矣，他们还有许多有待努力之处。至于发展中的新兴国家，知识分子面临的处境可能更为严峻。发展中的新兴国家，多半为前殖民地或次殖民地，由于国家命运的坎坷，这些国家的知识分子自然而然有着极强的"救赎情怀"，总希望能找到一两个核心概念即能使国家得救。问题在于"救赎知识分子"与西方的"乌托邦知识分子"乃是同类，愈将问题简化，反而距离问题的解决愈远。近代阿拉伯世界的知识分子，他们的救赎情怀最为强烈，国家主义、泛伊斯兰主义、马克思主义、原教旨主义都曾成为救赎药方，但都不能解决他们的困境。阿拉伯学者拉罗伊（Abdallah Larowi）遂如此说道："一个社会愈落后于其他社会，则它的革命目标愈分歧也愈深化；知识分子愈意识到这种停滞，则他们的责任感愈大也更常常容易被诱惑而逃避到各种幻想和迷思里。一种革命当它想要解决太多问题，则它距这些目标将更遥远，甚至终究成为不可能。"因此，新兴国家知识分子的处境其实比发达国家知识分子更为艰难。诺贝尔文学奖得主马奎斯在《迷宫中的将军》里描述南美洲的解放英雄玻利瓦尔将军，他带领人们解放成功，但解放后所遭遇的却是一个迷宫般的情势，各系各派都被不同的列强所左右，各有各的方向主张，国家形同一盘散沙，因而他最后遂有"别再管我们，让我们过我们自己的中世纪"之歌。后殖民大师萨依德则指出，落后国家的知识分子必须对自己国家的历史保持一定的"疏离和慷慨"，有太多后进国的知识分子对自己国家的历史缺乏同情与慷慨，而且有嫌弃与愤怒，当出现这种心态，则他们的没有希望已可断定。近百年来中国知识分子嫌汉字、嫌中国历史和文化，认为中国历史只是漫漫长夜，这些过去的事情我们都应当不陌生。也正因此，在中国几经波折，似乎已逐渐摆脱噩运的此刻，我倒认为中国的知识分子，理应去从事一种更有开拓性的工作，即根据自己的过去和人类的普遍经验，对身处社会的不同可能性及发展模式作新的探讨。这不但有益于中国自己，对比中国命运更坏的其他社会也有示范的效果。中国知识分子以前总是抄袭别国的经验，现在应该到了创造自己愿景的时候，这才是当代中国知识分子应有的认知，也是中国和平崛起之后，下阶段最重要的工作。

保罗·克利的《新天使》画的是一个天使看上去正要从他入神地注视地事物旁离去。他凝视着前方，他的嘴微张，他的翅膀展开了。人们就是这样描绘历史天使的。他的脸朝着过去。在我们认为是一连串事件的地方，他看到的是一场单一的灾难。这场灾难堆积着尸骸，将它们抛弃在他的面前。天使想停下来唤醒死者，把破碎的世界修补完整。可是从天堂吹来了一阵风暴，它猛烈地吹击着天使的翅膀，以至他再也无法把它们收拢。这风暴无可抗拒地把天使刮向他背对着的未来，而他面前的残垣断壁却越堆越高直逼天际。这场风暴就是我们所称的进步。

可以从两个角度来进行思考，一种是"自上而下的民族主义"，一种是"自下而上的民族主义"。战前的日本可以被划为"自上而下的民族主义"。但是过去在东南亚蓬勃发展的民族主义却推动了那里摆脱殖民统治的独立运动，使得受压迫的人们获得了解放。

赵晓力：虚拟世界这个说法现在好像不流行了。刚接触网络的时候可能什么人都有点眩晕感，上到现在还有吗？技术浪漫主义曾经以为我们能够得到一个与现实世界迥然相异的世界，而现在人们越来越清楚地意识到，那同样是我们切身的现实。关于网络的伦理其实与现实伦理是交错的。

The world's tallest skyscraper will open soon in Dubai, even as the emirate continues to be battered by the financial crisis. Is Burj Dubai an expression of failed megalomania or proof of Dubai leader Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum's stunning vision?The view is clear, the air is soft and silky, and only a thick strip of red separates the sky and the sea at sundown. The boundary between grandeur and kitsch becomes blurred here, halfway up the Burj Dubai, the world's tallest tower.It smells of paint, varnish and new leather, and the steps of female visitors on parquet and marble produce an elegant-sounding echo that suddenly disappears when they step onto soft carpets. An artificial island in the shape of a palm tree is visible to the southwest, and farther to the north is a man-made archipelago that looks like a map of the world.But only the furniture, the carpets, the smells and the sounds are real. The rest is an illusion. The visitor isn't gazing out at the Persian Gulf from 400 meters (1,312 feet) up in the air; in fact, he or she is standing at ground level -- in a model apartment with an enormous mural stretched outside its floor-to-ceiling windows -- at the foot of a hermetically sealed building.The model apartment is located at the recently closed sales office of Emaar Properties, the real estate development company behind the Burj Dubai, which has over-extended itself -- with projects from India to Morocco -- and is now selling some of its condominiums at half the list price. After falling by 32 percent in last two weeks, Emaar's stock price gained 15 percentage points again last Thursday. Emaar, like the entire city, is on the brink of ruin, and yet it behaves as if nothing has happened.Dubai, like no other place in the world, epitomizes globalization, "innovation" and "astonishing progress," as US President Barack Obama said admiringly in his speech to the Muslim world in Cairo in June. But it also stands for mind-boggling excess. In Dubai, utopias almost feel real sometimes, and reality is sometimes nothing but a mirage.The tower, at any rate, is real. With its 160 habitable stories, it juts 818 meters (2,683 feet) into the sky. Tourists have to kneel down on the sidewalk to photograph the building in its entirety, from base to tip.The Burj Dubai is so tall that Bedouins can see it from their oases 100 kilometers (63 miles) inland and sailors can see it from their supertankers, 50 nautical miles out in the Gulf -- at least on the few winter days when the air is as clear as it's portrayed on the mural in front of the model apartment window.The tower is so enormous that the air temperature at the top is up to 8 degrees Celsius (14 degrees Fahrenheit) lower than at the base. If anyone ever hit upon the idea of opening a door at the top and a door at the bottom, as well as the airlocks in between, a storm would rush through the air-conditioned building that would destroy most everything in its wake, except perhaps the heavy marble tiles in the luxury apartments. The phenomenon is called the "chimney effect."AN ARMY OF IMMIGRANT WORKERSAn army of immigrant workers from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, who make up about two-thirds of Dubai's residents, built the Burj. Only one in five residents is considered a "local" entitled to a United Arab Emirates passport. Scores of marketing strategists take steps to ensure that no one scrapes away at the silver varnish of this architectural marvel.Security guards quickly remind anyone who comes too close to the construction site of the meaning of the word "unauthorized." Those who are invited to tour the building, or even just the grounds, are required to sign a non-disclosure agreement, the terms of which are to be obey "finally, irrevocably and unconditionally." Anyone who violates the terms can expect to face a judge in Dubai.All of this will apply for only a little more than two weeks, until Jan. 4, 2010, the official opening date -- already rescheduled several times -- when the developers hope that the tower will begin serving its purpose as a magnet for a two-square-kilometer new development zone, where the wind was still blowing empty plastic bags across the desert sand only five years ago. And when the Burj Dubai opens, it will likely be one of the last major projects for some time in a city that has risen to dizzying heights and now faces the prospect of a precipitous fall.On a single day, Tuesday of last week, prices on Dubai's stock exchange fell by an average of 6 percent. The Islamic bond issued by real estate developer Nakheel fell to 52 cents a share, at a face value of $1 per share. The rating agency Moody's downgraded six other government-related firms to junk status. Hardly anyone believes that Dubai World, the largest of these companies, will be able to refinance its $26 billion debt within six months, as originally scheduled. The US bank Morgan Stanley predicts another drastic increase in the debt restructuring needs of Dubai's government-related firms to double the current level, or about $47 billion."Within a year, Dubai went from being the best-performing real estate market to one of the world's worst," writes the International Herald Tribune. Has the Persian Gulf emirate, once praised for its seemingly dazzling future, bitten off more than it can chew? Is the role model for a future-oriented Arabian Peninsula, with aspirations to become a hub of globalization between the East and the West, nothing less than a model for the future -- a failure?Ironically, it was the Wall Street Journal, standard-bearer of the West's brand of conservative capitalism, that warned against American and European arrogance and the tendency to write off the upstarts in the Gulf region and in the Third World in general. "The old centers ... view the Dubais, the Shanghais and the Rios with suspicion and with errant conviction that their models are built on foundations of sand, ready to collapse, when it was their own foundations that have proved to be weak," the paper writes. "Judging from the misguided reaction to Dubai's challenges, the past year hasn't changed those attitudes. That should make us worried, very worried, but not about Dubai."It is too early to sound the death bell for Dubai. That, at least, is the impression the sheikhs will try to make when they open the Burj Dubai in early January.A SUPREMELY ELEGANT EDIFICEStill, it would be condescending to dispute that the tower is an impressive, supremely elegant edifice, or that it is nothing less than graceful compared with the plain, cuboids from the age of functionalism or the gaudy, modern towers in places like Kuala Lumpur and Taipei.According to the tower's US architect, Adrian Smith, the floor plan, a central core surrounded by three lobes, is patterned on the blossom structure of the Hymenocallis flower, a shape that simultaneously creates more visible surface area and reduces the wind pressure acting on buildings this tall. As it tapers upward, one of the three lobes is shifted slightly backward about every eight floors, an effect that is reminiscent of an Islamic spiral minaret and provides the tower with 26 terraces. There will be an outdoor pool on one of the terraces, on the 78th floor, and the 124th floor (at 442 meters, or 1,450 feet, above sea level) will feature the world's third-highest observation deck.Uwe Hinrichs, 68, a native of the northern German city of Bremen, had already been involved in the construction of another Dubai landmark, the sail-shaped Burj-al-Arab Hotel, when he arrived on the construction site of his life in late 2004. The concrete foundation had already been poured, on top of 850 piles, driven up to 55 meters into the desert floor to support a load of 230,000 cubic meters of concrete and 31,000 tons of steel."From a construction standpoint," says Hinrichs, "the Burj Dubai is a relatively simple structure." One of the biggest challenges, according to Hinrichs, was the logistics of the project, an around-the-clock effort that lasted five years -- five years during which people, machines and material always had to be in the right place at the right time, 24 hours a day. Coordinating the whole thing was Hinrichs' job. His levelheaded northern German disposition proved advantageous in his position as chief coordinator, as did the fact that the people he reported to had no objection to the fact that he occassionally leaves Dubai to attend a concert in Vienna or a Rembrandt exhibition in Muscat in the neighboring country of Oman.PART 2: BAILOUTS FROM ABU DHABIIn 2004, a crew of about 2,000 people began building one floor at a time, completing an average of one per week. When interior construction entered its final phase in the fall of 2009, there were 14,000 people working on the project, people from 45 nations, speaking 35 different languages -- engineers in white helmets, security personnel in red helmets and laborers in blue helmets -- and yet there was no Babylonian linguistic confusion on the site. The workers completed a total of 95 million working hours, many at starvation wages. A skilled carpenter earned no more than €12 a day, while ordinary laborers made even less.Façade components were shipped from China, marble panels from Italy and veneers from Brazil. German companies were also involved in Burj Dubai's construction: Lopark, from the western state of North Rhine-Westphalia, supplied parquet flooring, entire football fields of it. The German branch of the US firm Guardian, based in the eastern state of Saxony-Anhalt, provided 174,000 square meters (1.8 million square feet) of solar glass. Dorma, from Ennepetal in North Rhine-Westphalia, supplied hinges and fittings. Duravit provided approximately 4,000 bidets and toilets. And Miele delivered 7,650 household appliances -- the biggest single order in the company's history. Designer Giorgio Armani bought 15,200 plates and cups from Bavarian porcelain maker Rosenthal for his hotel on the first eight floors of the building.German companies also played important roles in the development and processing of the basic core material of the Burj Dubai: concrete. Because concrete dries too quickly at daytime temperatures above 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit), the concrete was poured at night. German chemical giant BASF developed a special chemical to make the concrete more malleable initially and later rigid. Putzmeister, a maker of concrete pumps near Stuttgart, provided special high-performance pumps to pump the concrete up to the 160th floor.Quietly and uneventfully, which was entirely to Hinrichs' liking, the tower grew, floor after floor -- until June 6, 2007, when the weather service at the airport e-mailed Hinrichs a satellite image showing a cyclone that had developed over the Indian Ocean, the biggest storm ever recorded in the region, which was heading directly for the Strait of Hormuz. "That was the only day in five years," says Hinrichs, "when we had to close the construction site."The Dubai tower had already surpassed all superlatives in building history. It had overtaken the 509-meter Taipei 101 Tower as the tallest inhabited building in the world, as well as Toronto's 553-meter CN Tower as the tallest freestanding structure. Dubai had arrived at what had become the most ambitious of its goals. The city, a village of pearl divers only a generation earlier, had brought a world record back to the Middle East. For almost four millennia, the Great Pyramid of Giza (138.8 meters) was the world's tallest man-made structure, before it was overtaken by Lincoln Cathedral in England (160 meters, at the time) in 1311.TREMORSWhat could now unhinge this economic miracle on the Gulf? A terrorist attack? A new Gulf war, this time against Iran? Another earthquake, even stronger than the one that hit the region on Sept. 10, 2008?On the day of the cyclone on Sept. 10, 2008, a crane operator working 700 meters above the ground had called Hinrichs to report that it was "shaking" where he was standing. Tremors had shaken the Iranian port city of Bandar Abbas, but in Dubai, few (other than the crane operator) had even noticed.Five days later, Dubai was struck by another sort of tremor, but this one had its epicenter in New York, another city of skyscrapers. On Sept. 15, 2008, Lehman Brothers, the world's fourth-largest investment bank, filed for bankruptcy.Not just Dubai, but the West, too, had been building a tower in the years of the real estate boom, a tower of debt, which now came crashing down. But despite the vast sums of money involved in the crisis in the West, it was and largely remains a strangely abstract phenomenon. Not so in Dubai, however, which reflects the financial debacle more vividly than any other city in the world."Classic megalomania seems to have migrated from people's minds to the system itself. Nowadays the system is crazier than the people," says German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk. "That's why we, as human beings, are terribly disappointed by the course of the crisis. There was not a single colorful individual (in Europe) to make the crisis more interesting. I've never seen such an enormous conspiracy of petty bourgeoise people than at the moment."Sloterdijk may be right when it comes to the bankers, analysts and finance ministers of the West. But he apparently has never heard of Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, 60, a horse breeder and poet, a lover of fast powerful cars, an avid falconer and a juggler of billions. Maktoum is the ruler of Dubai and the prime minister of the United Arab Emirates. "Many leaders make promises," he said in February 2008, when the Free University of Berlin awarded him its medal of honor, "but we deliver."Maktoum had artificial islands built in the waters off his city, with names like The Palm, The World and The Universe. Not just the Free University, but the entire West was fascinated by his energy and optimism. Like the thoroughbred horses in his racing stable, he sent the most capable of his lieutenants into the orbit of globalization, and along the way they built new towers, bought ports and sent airliners out into the world.'CRISIS? WHAT CRISIS?'One real estate company after the next was founded -- Dubai Holding, Dubai Properties, Tatweer, Meraas, Sama -- and it soon became difficult to keep track of who was building what and with whose money. Apparently not even the sheikh himself was always in the know.Only about a year ago, investors were still crowding into the "CityScape Dubai" real estate convention. Former race-car driver Michael Schumacher was there, touting a skyscraper with a covered yacht berth. Nakheel, which is now in very dire financial straits, was seriously talking about the possibility of building a 1,000-meter tower. And, on the palm-shaped Jumeirah island, Dubai spent $20 million on fireworks to celebrate the opening of the fairytale Atlantis Hotel. "Crisis?" the city seemed to ask, "what crisis?"A year few weeks later, one of Sheikh Mohammed's officials presented the bill: Dubai had amassed $80 billion in debt, $50 billion of which, or about two-thirds of its gross domestic product, was scheduled to mature by 2013.For a few days, the sheikh suddenly disappeared from the scene. Rumors emerged he was ill and that he was "melancholy." Then he reappeared and began to whitewash the situation, claiming that the crisis had not affected Dubai, that Dubai had actually overcome the crisis, and that Dubai and its wealthy neighbor, Abu Dhabi, were as close and inseparable as brothers.But the "brothers" from the neighboring sheikdom, with whom the Dubaians form the bulk of the United Arab Emirates, no longer wanted any part of Dubai's excesses. Abu Dhabi has 7 percent of worldwide oil reserves, and its 64-year-old emir, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al-Nahyan, is the president of the UAE, while Dubai's Sheikh Mohammed is only its premier -- and Abu Dhabi now views the prestigious activities of his relative in the neighboring emirate with growing mistrust, and probably some envy.At the beginning of the year, Abu Dhabi rescued Dubai from the worst of its problems with a $20 billion cash injection. The emirate stepped in again earlier this week, providing Dubai with an additional $10 billion in financial aid. The emirate may have abundant assets in its $500 billion sovereign wealth fund, but how much longer will it be willing to bailout its neighbor? The sheikhs of Abu Dhabi seem to prefer to spend their money on sounder, more sustainable projects, such as an emissions-free eco-city called Masdar, where the emirate plans to conduct research on projects for the post-petroleum age.In the last four weeks, the sheikh has revealed -- not always voluntarily -- how serious the crisis is and how deeply it affects him. At first, the normally restrained sheikh lost his composure and told the critical Western media to "shut up," and then he dismissed three of his closest advisers on the emirate's central financial council. A short time later, he waxed poetic when he described the crisis as "the fruit-bearing tree that becomes the target of stone-throwers."PART 3: A SYMBOL OF EARTHLY TEMPTATIONIn truth, Sheikh Mohammed, the poet-prince, has good reasons to look forward to the day when the Burj Dubai opens its doors. With one snip of the red ribbon, he will be taking up the thread of a great epic, a saga of humanity that goes well beyond the financial problems of a debt-ridden Gulf emirate. Once before, the Eastern World is said to have been the home another groundbreaking tower, in Babylon, the legendary Mesopotamian city between the Tigris and the Euphrates.Archeologists have confirmed that the Tower of Babel did indeed exist in the 3rd century B.C. They estimate that the skyscraper of antiquity was 90 meters tall, a marvel of the day, and was constructed on a platform that was 90 meters square. If this were true, the tower would have been one-ninth as tall as the latest wonder of the modern world. According to the Bible, the Tower of Babel was much more than a building, but rather a symbol of earthly temptation. "Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves." These words, which sound strikingly like a motto of today's rulers of Dubai, are in fact from the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament. Even today, many of the faithful believe that endeavoring to be like God is a presumption that must invariably lead to punishment.MEGALOMANIA OR A GRAND ACHIEVEMENT?Nevertheless, the excessive building of cities and towers seems to be a cross-cultural constant, a dream and nightmare alike for mankind, from the Babylonians to the heroes and villains of the present. The ruler of Dubai isn't the only one who has carried out his plans in reinforced concrete and gleaming facades.President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan had Astana, an entire city of monumental avenues, triumphal arches and pyramids built as his new capital, where marble contrasts with granite, buildings are topped by gigantic glass domes and, on the Bayterek Tower, every subject can place his or her hand in a golden imprint of the president's hand.In the Burmese jungle, dictatorial generals had an absurd new capital, Naypyidaw, or "Seat of the Kings," conjured up out of nothing. Yamoussoukro, the capital of Côte d'Ivoire and a memorial to the country's now-deceased first president, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, is even a step closer to the brink. The city is filled with grandiose buildings, but there are hardly any people to be seen. The Basilica of Notre Dame de la Paix is a piece of lunacy inspired by the Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican, but the African church is even bigger than St. Peter's. Indeed, it is the world's largest Catholic church.It is easy to ridicule the megalomaniacs and their hubris and to rail against the record-breaking mania reflected in their ostentatious buildings, phallic symbols of the rise to power of nouveau-riche potentates.And yet, aren't Brasilia and Canberra, the South American and Australian versions of the man-made model city, remarkable successes? Hasn't history proven at least a few visionaries right, people whose achievements we continue to marvel at today: the creators of Giza on the Nile, Machu Picchu in the Andes and Angkor in Cambodia, or the planners of St. Petersburg?Today, the pyramids of the pharaohs, the mountain fortress of the Incas and the sacral ruins of the Khmer are admired as part of the world's cultural heritage, places that attest to man's greatness. They are the great and magnificent achievements of past eras. Nowadays, the center of St. Petersburg -- designed on the drawing board, like Dubai today, more than 300 years ago -- is still considered an ideal city and an example of successful urban planning.Where the emirates are built on sand, the banks of the Neva River were once swampland. At the behest of the czar, St. Petersburg was not just created as Russia's window to the West, but as a reflection of what the modernists of the day defined as utopian. "Now, city of Peter, stand thou fast, Foursquare, like Russia; vaunt thy splendor! The very element shall surrender And make her peace with thee at last," Alexander Pushkin, the congenial poetic counterpart to Peter the Great, wrote in his poem "The Bronze Horseman." It was pure hubris, cast in the form of magnificent verse.What happens today in Dubai -- or in Shanghai or Astana -- generally happens under the conditions of an authoritarian form of government. In democracies, people cannot be dispossessed and driven off their property but, instead, can hire attorneys to assert their rights. In democracies, more or less reasonable building codes and ordinances, as well as licensed appraisers, ensure that uncontrolled growth and injustices are kept in check. But this limiting effect also applies to creativity, spontaneity and "positive" megalomania, resulting in a general leveling of things.THE VIRTUE OF TAKING THE PLUNGE"This society is mediocre," the poet and sharp-tongued contemporary critic Hans Magnus Enzensberger once wrote about German reality. "Its political leaders and its works of art are mediocre, as are its representatives and its taste, its joys, its opinions, its architecture, its media, its fears, vices and afflictions." And then, in his essay "Mediocrity and Delusion," Enzensberger writes: "There is something cathartic about this realization."Somewhere between Western suburbs and Yamoussoukro lies Dubai. Whether its Burj, its tower, will ever become a part of the world's cultural heritage is still open, as is the question of how long it will remain the world's tallest structure. China, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are already planning towers that will be much taller than the Burj Dubai, reaching more than 1,000 meters into the sky.In the Book of Isaiah, the Bible describes the fall of Babel as follows: "And suddenly your downfall will come, and it will come unexpectedly." If the words of the Old Testament are to be believed, the megalomaniacal tower builders of today cannot expect external support: "Thus shall they be unto thee with whom thou hast labored, even thy merchants, from thy youth: They shall wander every one to his quarter; none shall save thee."The Burj Dubai was not cheap, and perhaps it was even unaffordable. But at least the sheikhs of Dubai have taught their contemporaries one virtue: the virtue of taking the plunge.

保守与革命之争反映的是致命的自负：它希望由精英集团垄断政治，大众作为沉默的被代表者，由精英代理人代替他们参与政治。这种人为固化的二元格局只会继续固化政治危机，这种脆弱的精英寡头格局势必难以为继。根本而言，民主运动是抵抗这一僵化的利益同盟的唯一方式。

“乡土文学”的说法最早来自鲁迅先生，1935年他在《中国新文学大系·小说二集序》中指出：“蹇先艾叙述过贵州，斐文中关心着榆关。凡在北京用笔写出他的胸臆来的人们，无论他自称为用主观或客观，其实往往是乡土文学，从北京之方面来说，则是侨寓文学的作者。”

最近一段时间学术界非常关注重庆，我想把重庆经验放在一个更长的时段、更广的视野里来探索“中国社会主义3.0版本”。关于社会主义的讨论非常多，归根到底就是社会跟个人的相对，因此社会主义在很大程度上与个人是相对的。资本主义强调个体和市场竞争，而社会主义强调互助团结。社会主义的内涵是什么，还需要继续讨论。实际上在苏联解体时，就有一篇评论文章讨论“社会主义今天的地位”。可见，社会主义从来就没有也不应该有一种放之四海而皆准的固定模式，所以探索社会主义道路是极具挑战性的，也是十分复杂的。在不同的国家，不同的发展阶段，社会主义的实践方式肯定不同。 　　我们可以看到，中国在过去这些年走过了不同的历史阶段。第一个阶段可以叫做匮乏阶段；第二个阶段叫做温饱阶段；进入2002年以后，实际上中国步入了小康阶段。在不同阶段，社会主义的模式不应该是一样的，实际上也是不一样的。 　　在匮乏阶段，可以叫做社会主义1.0版本，由于历史的原因，人均收入很低，人们普遍贫穷。这一阶段，人均收入完全公平分配，每个人也能在很低的生活水平上生存，因为只要稍微有一点不公平，就有人可能活不下来。这一阶段，基本保证了中国社会的公平性，这是当时不得已的一种选择。 　　到了温饱阶段，中国不再实行平均分配，一方面要促进经济发展，使一部分人先富起来，提高多数人的收入水平；另一方面还有一些吃不饱、穿不暖的人需要扶贫，因此，这个阶段要着力实现社会主义保障性的最大化。这个阶段可以叫做社会主义2.0版本。 　　进入小康社会以后，私人收入、消费水平的提高与社会福利改善的关系就不是一个递增的关系了，而是递减的关系。当收入水平比较低的时候，个人收入水平的提高，私人消费水平的提高，会改善整个社会的生存质量，但在这个阶段并不是这样。比如进入小康阶段以后，大量的攀比和竞争牺牲了人与人之间的和谐关系，所有人都活得很累。其实，这完全是诱导性消费使然。现在我们看中国的问题，中国在过去20年里盖的房子可能比全世界任何国家盖的房子都多，中国人均居住情况的改善可能比全世界任何国家都好，但是现在住房却变成最大的问题。这不是因为房子少了，而是攀比心理使人们看到邻居住300平米的房子，自己住50平米的房子心里就不踏实，当年大家都住50平米的房子，就不存在这个问题。还有养老、治安等问题，改革开放之前这些问题可以基本平均保障，大家感到安全，但是现在哪怕收入很高，人们也有不安全感。因此解决温饱问题，应切实加大改革力度，增加改善大多数人福利的投入，包括公共住房、公共卫生、生态保护、公共教育、基础设施、文化艺术、科学技术等方面。当前这个阶段可以叫做社会主义3.0版本。 　　概括来讲，社会主义1.0版本主要是指匮乏阶段，计划经济模式决定了不搞物质刺激，只有精神刺激，比如先进生产者这样的精神刺激，成就是很大的，中国经济实现了快速发展。中国从1953—1978年，GDP年均增长率是6.5%，即使放在今天来看，这也是一个相当高的增长率。同时，这个阶段解决了基本的人的安全问题。中国免于战乱，保证了人的吃穿住用，基本医疗、基础教育都得到了发展，为下一步的发展奠定了基础。中国解放以后的变化是巨大的，我们看1950年的时候，中国和印度的发展指数是一样的，比当时的巴西、美国低得多，但是到2007年的时候已经实现了快速发展。所以诺贝尔经济学奖的获得者讲，中国改革开放之所以发展这么快，其基础实际上是改革开放以前就奠定了的。 　　社会主义2.0版本的出现，是因为中国经济发展水平到了一定的阶段，人们的温饱问题得到了解决，人们有基本生存的条件了。那么，让经济更快、更稳的发展，消除贫困就成了非常重要的问题。在过去的30年里，中国贫困人口减少了5亿，如果中国没有实施成功的扶贫攻坚战略的话，那全世界的贫困人口就要增加5亿了。 　　社会主义3.0版本的生成，就是面对中国进入小康阶段以后，人均收入足以维持小康生活水平，这个时候已经形成了混合所有制——市场+规划。这个阶段面临的问题是，衣食问题已经基本上解决，住行问题还需要改善。住就是宜居的问题，行就是畅通的问题。私人的衣食住行问题解决以后，还要解决公共住行的问题。这样，我们就把重庆经验带进来。重庆更像中国的一个缩影，它跟天津、北京不一样，2008年的时候，重庆在所有指标中只有一项比全国平均水平高一点，其他的指标都比全国平均水平要低，所以重庆经验对中国的其他地区来说可能有一定的借鉴意义。 　　讲到重庆经验，大概是这么四个字“打黑唱红”。但是在我看来，可以概括为四点：三项制度和三项活动、五个重庆、两翼万元增收、国民共进。这四点正好构成了我说的社会主义3.0版本的要素，尤其是三项制度和三项活动还具有社会主义1.0版本中的一些因素。两翼农村万元增收是要解决贫困问题，缩小贫富差距的问题，这是带有社会主义2.0版本的描述。但是，五个重庆就是解决住行和公共的问题，这是社会主义3.0版本的要素，这是要保证国有的和民有的都可以共进。我感觉重庆经验最重要的，就是把社会主义的未来和能够看得见摸得着的成果联系起来，关注最广大人民群众的呼声，这里面既有社会主义1.0版本的要素，也有社会主义2.0版本的要素，更重要的是其中也蕴涵实践社会主义3.0版本的要素。重庆正在实践的社会主义，在社会主义各个阶段的发展中都具有连续性。当然，探索中国社会主义并不是重庆一个地方的问题，其实其他地方也在做，现在我们看到有很多人到重庆来学习经验，这就使重庆模式的适应能力变得强大，这不仅是具体的政策，也不仅是具体的制度，而是整个体制制度允许自我学习，这是重庆模式真正的实质，重庆正在证明这一点。

经过明清人之手而传下来的李诗，常见失真之处。因为这一时期的文人每自负能诗，喜以己意改诗，而李白诗集已经作为商品在社会上流行，坊贾刊此贸利，常请一些文士操选政，或利用某一文士之名声作为选本的编者，于是李诗中具有个人特点的地方，常遭明清时期的一些选本擅自改窜

灋，在传统先秦著作中是个常用字。然，编撰于战国时期的《左传》《国语》却不用"灋"而用"法"。"佱"、"灋"、"廌"诸字怎么会在传世的战国文献中消失殆尽？不免会做出这样的推断：大凡是汉人重新做了修纂或改窜。