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大型思想人文丛刊《天下》创刊号目录

中国大陆与台湾地区同根同源，近现代以来，尽管两岸在制度、体制和发展道路上分道扬镳，但深刻的内在联系却无法割断，近年来相互交流和借鉴更是十分活跃。比较中国大陆的人民调解制度与台湾地区的乡镇市调解制度，有利于总结其中的经验和问题，相互借鉴。

可以从两个角度来进行思考，一种是"自上而下的民族主义"，一种是"自下而上的民族主义"。战前的日本可以被划为"自上而下的民族主义"。但是过去在东南亚蓬勃发展的民族主义却推动了那里摆脱殖民统治的独立运动，使得受压迫的人们获得了解放。

新刊《陈寅恪先生年谱长编（初稿）》，于1932年条下提到陈寅恪在天台山所藏古代梵文写本中发现古印度诗人迦梨陀娑所造梵文戏曲《沙恭达罗》片断一事。笔者久疑这件事中或有误传之处，现趁《陈寅恪先生年谱长编（初稿）》出版的机会，依据手头史料试做初步考证。

一九五六年，二十四岁的大学生石原慎太郎，以小说《太阳的季节》获得日本最高的文学奖芥川奖。很快，依据小说拍成的电影流行一时。评论家四方田概括，这是一部描写“厮混在日本相模湾一带的资产阶级家庭的青年们日常生活”的作品。

我想从八十年代开始，尤其到了九十年代以后，"忏悔"，实际上变成了我们知识分子口边特别热的，特别俗的，最后要滥到泛滥成灾的那么一个词儿。每个人都在要求别人忏悔，甚至逼着别人忏悔，很少人要对自我进行忏悔。

4月27日上午，获悉韩南先生去世，深感震惊和遗憾。过去的几个月内，先生往返于医院与康复中心，身体状况时有反复，近几周似乎已渐趋稳定。在记事本上，我写下了最新的电话号码，心里想着这一周的什么时候就可以跟先生通话了⋯⋯。

我们不必相信许多人所说：唯有自由人才应得到教育。我们更应相信哲学家所言：唯有受过教育的人才是自由的。

中国文化若要健全，征兵则当然势在必行，但伪君子阶级也必须消灭。凡在社会占有地位的人，必须都是文武兼备，名副其实的真君子。非等此点达到，传统社会的虚伪污浊不能洗清。

五四民主主义膜拜与幻想的形成，从一方面看固然是对中国“第一共和”（1912-1928）的建立及其后持续不断的危机的反应，所谓愈挫愈奋，屡仆屡起；但从另一方面看，愈趋愈激的民主主义也终于断绝了晚清以来不绝若线的共和主义（Republicanism）政治实践——因其不纯粹民主，并使中国现代政治始终处于一种“过渡”状态——因其不符合理想的模式。限于篇幅，这里围绕五四时期陈独秀与康有为有关“孔教与共和政治”的言论展开。

摘要：第二次世界大战期间被掠夺或者被非法转移文物的返还是一个世界性的历史遗留问题，近年来已经引起了国际社会的广泛关注。中国在二战期间被日本掠夺的大量文物迄今没有返还，而且由于种种历史和现实原因学术界对这个问题的关注也很不够。本文概要介绍了国际社会的相关实践，分析了中国被掠文物返还的法律基础，并探讨了中国收回被掠文物的途径和方法。作者认为：虽然在这个领域里缺乏直接的法律依据，但一些国际条约的相关规定和国际组织的宣言、建议仍可以作为我们与相关国家之间进行谈判的指导原则；收回被掠文物的主要途径除政府间达成双边或多边协定外，还包括有关国际组织的协调、民间机构的广泛参与和受害者的诉讼等。 第二次世界大战期间被掠夺或者被非法转移文物的返还是一个世界性的历史遗留问题，近年来得到国际社会的广泛关注，在欧洲各国尤其受到重视。但在亚洲国家，比起战争赔偿、慰安妇问题、劳工问题以及遗留化学武器等热点问题，被掠夺文物的返还还没有引起人们的足够重视。实际上中国是第二次世界大战最大的受害国之一，文物损失最惨重，最有权利得到补偿。本文概要介绍国际社会在这个问题上所采取的一些举措，着重探讨中国被掠文物返还的相关法律基础及目前存在的若干难题，进一步寻求可能的返还途径。一、国际社会在二战被掠文物的返还问题上所做的努力作为国际社会的一种共识，被非法转移的文物应该尽可能地归还给原产国。因为文物是一个国家或者民族的象征，是一个国家或者民族历史的见证。更重要的是，文物是一种不可再生、复制和替代的资源，对创造它的人而言是唯一的。所以，国际社会做出许多努力，来遏制和打击对文物的盗窃、非法挖掘和贩运，以及任何形式的破坏，积极促进被非法转移的文物返还给原产国以及原所有人。相对于任何个人或者有组织的盗窃、非法挖掘和贩运，战争是对文物的最大破坏。因为战争是一种国家行为，在国家利益的名义下，轰炸、焚烧、掠夺文物成为战争的重要目标之一，使文物遭到永远无法恢复的毁坏。而二战无疑是对人类文化遗产的一次最严重的破坏，受害国家和人数之多、文物被毁灭和掠夺之巨，都是史无前例的。据1945年11月建立的“清理战时文物损失委员会”的不完全统计，战争期间仅从中国掠走的文物至少有3,607,074件又1,870箱[1]，绝大多数至今没有归还。在欧洲，纳粹德国从其占领的国家掠夺了大量的艺术品，其中很大一部分属于犹太人。据“世界犹太人协会”估计，纳粹德国抢掠的珍贵艺术品可能多达11万件。战争结束后，一些国家根据相关法律和协议归还了部分文物，如1945-1949年美国占领当局向德国地方政府归还了原属于德国的艺术品，20世纪50年代末前苏联政府向当时的民主德国政府归还了部分艺术品。但由于冷战时期两极对抗的存在，相关国家之间无法正常就返还问题展开外交谈判，直到20世纪80年代末，这类成功返还的案件还是很罕见的。从90年代开始，这种状况发生了极大的变化，许多国际组织和非政府组织纷纷出台一些原则和建议，以促进相关国家之间就二战被掠夺或者被转移文物的返还进行协商、达成协议。比如，美国国务院和大屠杀纪念馆1998年在华盛顿举办了“大屠杀时期资产返还问题”国际会议，有44个国家和许多非政府组织派代表出席了会议。代表们就1933-1945年之间被非法剥夺财产的返还问题进行了讨论，并签署了关于返还被纳粹掠夺的艺术品的11项基本原则。[2] 再比如，国际博物馆协会(ICOM) 于1999年向世界各国的博物馆从业者提出了一份建议，要求各博物馆调查和辨认那些出处可疑的藏品的来历，尤其是二战期间或者战争刚刚结束后获得的藏品的来历。该建议还要求各博物馆公开相关调查信息，并将原属于犹太人或其他合法所有者的艺术品归还给原所有权人或其后裔。[3]作为最重要的文化遗产保护国际机构之一，联合国教科文组织也在这个问题上进行了不懈的努力。1995年，教科文组织国际标准部提出了关于解决因二战期间被转移文物而产生的纠纷的一些基本原则草案。为了使这些原则进一步完善与规范，以便提交联合国教科文组织“促进文化财产返还给原有国的政府间委员会”讨论并通过，教科文组织国际标准部于2000年5月在巴黎总部召开了一个专家会议。笔者作为中国专家参加了此次会议，从中国及亚洲国家二战文物被掠的实际情况出发，提出了自己的意见。此后，关于二战被掠文物的返还问题一直是“促进文化财产返还给原有国的政府间委员会”历届会议的重点议题之一。据悉，2006年7月结束的“促进文化财产返还给原有国的政府间委员会”第14届会议由于各国分歧较大而未能获得通过，近期将再次开会讨论以最终定稿，以便提交2007年召开的第34届联合国教科文组织大会审议，作为“关于二战期间被转移文物返还的宣言”向成员国提出。在国际社会的努力促进和犹太受害者的不懈追求下，有关国家之间也进行了积极的磋商，并取得不小的进展。1996年，德国和俄罗斯政府在经历了多年谈判后达成了一项双边文化合作协定，以促进二战期间从对方领土上获得的文物归还给对方。俄罗斯政府在国际社会的强大压力下，经过艰难抉择，最终于2003年宣布了一项重大决定，归还二战结束前作为战利品从德国运回苏联的所有艺术品。据悉这批艺术品共计100万件，主要是纳粹德国从欧洲各地掠夺来的，其中包括不少著名画家的绘画作品，以及奥地利私人图书馆珍藏的从１５世纪到１８世纪的１０００多本书籍和手稿孤本等文物珍品。俄罗斯当局称，这些艺术品将在专门的网站上公布，所有这些物品的原主人及其后裔都可以在此后的１８个月内向俄罗斯政府提出关于所有权的有力证据，并经俄方考证无误后再将艺术品物归原主。[4] 虽然具体的归还工作需要经过非常复杂和严格的认证程序，但俄罗斯政府的举动普遍得到国际社会的好评，它为彻底解决二战文物的返还问题树立了一个榜样。荷兰政府于2006年2月做出决定，返还200幅二战期间被纳粹德国掠夺的、原属犹太收藏家收藏的名画。奥地利政府也于最近几年陆续向原来的拥有者归还了5000余幅艺术作品。[5]二、中国被掠文物返还的法律基础及其难题二战被掠文物的返还既是一个政治问题，更是一个法律问题。由于被掠文物涉及许多国家，其返还不仅是内国法问题，而且更多地是国际法领域的问题。对于中国而言，由于我们没有就对日追索或者收回文物制定专门立法，也没有哪项法律直接涉及该问题，因此更多地还是要从国际法的角度去寻求法律依据和支持。最早涉及战争期间文化遗产保护责任的国际公约是海牙公约。作为1899年海牙第二公约附件和1907年海牙第四公约附件的《陆战法规和惯例公约》第56条都规定：“市政当局的财产，包括宗教、慈善、教育、艺术和科学机构的财产，即使是国家所有，也应作为私有财产对待。对这些机构、历史性建筑物、艺术和科学作品的任何没收、毁灭和故意的损害均应予以禁止并受法律追究。” [6]也就是说，这两个公约都禁止在战争期间抢掠文化财产，而不论这些财产属于私人所有还是国家所有，并且抢掠财产的行为应受法律追究。值得注意的是，很多与二战掠夺和转移文物相关的国家，如英、美、法、德、意、日、俄等均签署并批准了这两个公约，中国也是其成员国，因此，两公约本应对这些国家都具有法律拘束力。遗憾的是，两公约都包含了“普遍参加条款”，即只有在全体交战国都是公约批准国时，公约才具有约束力；如果有一个非成员国参加作战，该公约就不发生效力，即便是对批准国也不生效。[7] 而第二次世界大战的交战国家已远远超出了批准国范围，因此我们无法直接适用这两个公约来要求日本返还被掠文物。在二战即将结束之时，为了避免对被占领土造成更严重的财产毁坏，1943年，同盟国在伦敦发布了“反对在被占领土从事掠夺行为的宣言”。该宣言宣布：一切被占领土上财产的转移、交易行为均属无效，不管这种转移或交易采取公开掠夺还是合法的形式，即便它们被赋予“自愿”的形式也是无效的。中国作为同盟国成员签署了该宣言，也就是说，中国保留战后追究战争期间的任何掠夺、转移财产，包括掠夺、转移文物的行为。二战结束后，国际社会认识到文物在战争中遭受到严重的破坏，决定采取一切必要的措施保护文物免受战争的威胁，联合国教科文组织制定了1954年《关于在武装冲突情况下保护文化财产的海牙公约》。该公约第4条及其议定书都禁止在武装冲突情况下对另一缔约国文化财产的盗窃、盗用、掠夺和任何形式的破坏行为。第26条进一步要求缔约各国对违反该公约的任何人，不论其国籍，采取一切必要步骤进行追诉并施以刑罚或予以制裁。该公约是世界上第一个专门针对战争期间文化财产保护的国际公约，有100多个国家加入了该公约。遗憾的是，该公约没有追溯力，不能直接适用于二战文物的返还。此外，1970年联合国教科文组织《关于禁止和防止非法进出口文化财产和非法转让其所有权的方法的公约》和1995年《国际统一私法协会关于被盗或者非法出口文物的公约》 都明确要求缔约国采取一切必要措施禁止和防止进口从他国被盗和非法出口的文化财产，防止其所有权的非法转让，并采取适当措施收回和归还此类文化财产。1970年公约并且明确规定：“一个国家直接或间接地由于被他国占领而被迫出口文化财产或转让其所有权应被视为非法。”（第11条） “本公约缔约国应尊重由其负责国际关系的领土内的文化财产，并应采取一切适当措施禁止并防止在这些领土内非法进出口文化财产和非法转让其所有权。”（第12条）遗憾的是，这两项公约同样没有追溯力。从以上论述可以看出，到目前为止所有公约都不能直接适用于二战被掠文物的返还。尽管1899年和1907年海牙公约的附件《陆战法规和惯例公约》直接涉及到战争期间禁止对文物的破坏和掠夺，并追究破坏和掠夺者的法律责任，但由于“普遍参加条款”的存在而使这些规定无法生效。而且这些规定即便能够生效，也由于规定得太笼统而缺乏可操作性。1943年的伦敦宣言只是同盟国单方面的宣言，只能对参战国家起一个警示作用，不能作为返还文物的直接法律依据引用。1954年的海牙公约是目前为止最直接地针对战争期间文化财产的保护的，它不仅禁止将被占领土的文化财产运往境外，还要求有关方面归还已被运往境外的文化财产。1970年公约和1995年公约也同样要求缔约国归还被盗窃和非法出口的文化财产。但是，二战以后订立的这几项国际公约都不具有追溯力，无法成为二战文物返还的直接法律依据。也正因为在这个领域存在法律依据不足的缺陷，所以，相关国际组织才提出了一些基本原则和建议，虽然它们都不具有法律约束力，但为国与国之间进行双边或多边谈判提供了指导意见。目前正在联合国教科文组织酝酿通过的“关于二战期间被转移文物返还的宣言”是这些国际组织提出的原则和建议中最具积极指导意义的一种。该宣言草案包括一个序言和13条原则。其宗旨是鼓励各国按照宣言确认的方法和措施，就返还二战流失文物进行认真谈判，促成这些文物的返还。该宣言适用于因二战期间的敌对状态或者占领之下从某一领土转移或者流失的文物而起的纠纷，所谓“转移”或“流失”既包括公开抢劫或掠夺，也包括非法的占有和被迫的转让，甚至包括形式上“自愿”而实际是被迫的交易。宣言要求文物的现所在国或存放国采取必要措施确保将文物返还其最初被转移或流失的领土，并在返还之前禁止其出口，而不论该文物是否有人提出要求。对文物的被转移和流失负有责任的国家应查找这些文物的下落，如果文物已被转手则应负责购回，并将其返还原属领土。文物返还后，接受国应积极查找这些文物的原所有权人或其继承者，并依法将文物归还他们。该宣言特别强调：返还的文物不得作为战争赔偿，而且宣言所规定的义务没有任何时效限制。这说明起草者充分考虑到了第二次世界大战以及文物本身所具有的特殊性，不能将文物视为普通私法上的财产，被掠文物的返还仅仅是对战争的反省，并不涉及对受害国家和个人的赔偿。这样既避开了长期以来争论不休的关于日本的战争赔偿责任问题，也彻底解决了通常国际公约缺乏追溯效力的问题，并且堵住了有关国家以时效已过为借口拒绝返还要求的退路。当然，该宣言也一再宣称，它只是为有关国家之间的双边或多边谈判提供指导的“软法”，旨在促进有关协议的达成，并成为判例法发展的基础。[8]三、中国收回被掠文物的主要途径和方法近年来，中国民间对流失海外文物的回归表现了较大的关注，顺便也带出了二战期间被掠文物的返还问题。大多数人所提到的最直接的方法是购买甚至是在拍卖会上竟拍。这样做虽然能使某些被掠文物很快回归，满足了某些人的虚荣心，但其社会效果却是令人质疑的。明明是属于我们自己的文物，是被强盗掠夺走的，却要我们花费大量的资金去买回来，难怪有的学者称这是“再次被掠，二次被盗”[9]。这样购买回来的文物不仅激发不了人们的爱国心，反而会更加令人痛心，甚至会导致人们对有关部门管理能力的怀疑。说得严重些，这种做法与购买赃物其实没什么区别，甚至更糟，因为它在很大程度上抬高了被掠文物的市场价格，刺激了被掠文物的不正常流通，从而给通过正常渠道追索被掠文物带来了很大的障碍。从国际社会的相关法律实践来看，收回被掠文物应该采取以下途径和方法：首先，在现有法律框架内，最直接也是最有效的返还途径就是相关国家政府之间通过外交谈判达成双边或多边协议，彻底解决历史遗留问题。如果中日等国能够就这个问题达成返还协议，它所带来的社会影响和教育意义将是巨大的，因为它表明了中国政府对历史遗留问题的高度责任心，也表明了日本政府对战争的深刻反省，以及对受害国人民的最直接的道歉和对创造这些文物的民族和人民的尊重。当然，这也是最艰难的一条道路。德国和俄罗斯之间对第二次世界大战的性质和后果认识足够清楚，达成返还文物的协议尚且需要几十年的努力，以日本政府目前对侵略战争拒不反省的态度，是很难在二战文物返还的问题上有所松动的。以往的事实也证明了这一点。早在1946年初，当时的民国政府即向盟军总部和远东委员会提出了一份《中国抗战时期公私文物损失数量及估价总目》，要求日本政府查找这些被掠文物并返还中国。这份目录详细记录了书籍、字画、碑帖、古物、仪器、标本、地图、艺术品、杂项等各类可移动文物的被掠情况，也包括古迹等不可移动文物的损失情况。根据盟军总部的苛刻要求，这份目录提交时还附有每件被掠文物的详细说明，包括文物的名称、制作年代、性状、尺寸、重量等，还附有照片或者样图，并且说明了实施掠夺的部队番号及指挥官的姓名，同时还提供了文物的所有权凭证和地方政府的证明。当然，由于时间紧迫，很多被掠文物的失主在1945年底因躲避战乱还未及返回家乡，根本无法进行失物的登记；而且提供实施掠夺部队番号的要求也很苛刻。因此这份目录中所登记的应当只是中国被掠文物中极为有限的一部分。即便如此，日本政府也没有全力配合查找和返还。虽然日本政府于1946年5月9日曾通令全国：凡七七事变后于中国等地强制没收或者掠夺的文物，现存于日本者，必须于5月20日前查报，藏匿不报者，一经查出将处以两年以下监禁，并处5,000元罚金，[10] 但实际上并没有对这些文物的下落进行详细调查，而是采取敷衍态度，只归还了很小一部分文物，绝大多数都被日本方面以无法查证或已经毁灭等理由拒绝了。所以，日本政府主动归还被掠文物几乎是不可能的。但是，文物毕竟不是普通财产，它带有的特殊标记谁也抹不掉。目前的日本政府再张狂，恐怕也不敢在他们的博物馆里公开展出像北京人头盖骨（如果还在的话）之类明显属于二战时期从中国掠走或者流失的文物。实际上在现在的国际环境下，别说日本，估计任何一个国家都不敢公开将北京人头盖骨这样明显带有中国标记，而且是二战流失标记的文物居为己有。这就是正义的力量！因此，只要我们坚持不懈地努力，不放过任何线索和机会，日本政府也不能不考虑国际压力。再说，文物的返还与战争赔偿是两回事，国际社会都将其作为特例来处理，我们也不应该太悲观。    其次，利用相关国际组织的协调功能来促进被掠文物的返回。联合国教科文组织是文化遗产保护领域的一个重要国际组织，它专门设有“促进文化财产返还给原有国的政府间委员会”。该机构对于促进文物返还已经做了许多工作，并且对二战被掠文物的返还特别重视，近十几年来一直在探讨促进二战文物返还的基本原则和具体方法。如果2007年“关于二战期间被转移文物返还的宣言”能够如期出台，那它的影响力将不可小觑。与其他相关国际组织出台的原则或建议相比，联合国教科文组织的宣言草案考虑得更周全，可操作性也更强。更重要的是，中国、日本、韩国、朝鲜等相关国家都是教科文组织的成员国，尽管宣言不具有法律约束力，但对这些国家解决文物返还的历史遗留问题还是会有相当大的说服力的。其实即使宣言不能如期出台，中国和其他受害国家也可以向“促进文化财产返还给原有国的政府间委员会”提出申请，要求日本返还某件或某些被掠夺或流失的文物，因为在相关国家间进行调解或调停、促进双边或多边合作使文物返还给原有国正是该委员会的主要职责。在它的斡旋和帮助下，相关国家之间开展外交谈判会顺利得多。再次，发挥民间机构和正义人士的作用。迄今为止许多成功返还的事例都是在民间机构的参与和正义人士的帮助下进行的，在二战文物返还问题上他们扮演着重要的角色。很多民间机构和正义人士出于对战争的反省和憎恨，主动将它们所占有的二战被掠文物返还给受害国的相关机构，比如2006年7月14日东京大学图书馆向首尔大学归还了韩国古籍《朝鲜王朝实录》，在中、日、韩等国引起很大反响。因此，成立专门的民间文物追索机构，利用民间力量进行被掠文物现状和下落的调查和研究，主动与日本和国际相关机构开展合作，探讨被掠文物返还的途径，及时向公众发布被掠文物的信息并公开表明收回文物的意愿，给日本政府和被掠文物的现占有者或保存者施加压力，是十分必要的。另外，诉讼当然也是受害者的重要权利。如果受害者有明确的证据证明自己的文物在战争中被掠夺或没收，并且知道其下落，也可以通过诉讼的方式要求归还。但这同样是一条艰难的路，最近几年中国许多战争受害者向日本法院起诉要求赔偿，大都以失败告终。受害者可能会遇到的最大问题就是诉讼时效。如果根据普通私法来起诉，当然会有时效问题。但现在的国际潮流和惯例显然是将二战文物的追索当作特例来对待，很多国际组织提出的原则和建议，包括正在起草的教科文组织二战文物返还宣言，都明确提出二战被掠文物的追索不受时效的限制。也正因为如此，许多犹太受害者及其后裔才能从有关国家索回自己的艺术品。 综上所述，二战被掠文物的返还是一个比较复杂的历史遗留问题。但是，我们不能因为目前缺乏直接的法律依据或者日本现政府的强硬态度，就不积极主动地开展有系统有组织的行动，甚至放弃应有的权利。实际上，收回二战被掠文物不仅是我们的权利，更是我们对子孙后代应尽的责任和永远回避不了的民族义务。犹太受害者及其后裔之所以得到国际社会的广泛同情和支持，在很大程度上是因为他们坚持不懈、年复一年地向德国以及其他相关国家进行追索，即便是在冷战时期他们也没有放弃努力，终于使越来越多的国家做出了归还艺术品的正义决定。二战距今已有60多年了，许多证据正在消失，我们应当怀有历史的紧迫感和责任感，充分利用国际国内的各种有利因素，对有关问题开展系统的研究，积极开展被掠文物的返还工作。* 中国人民大学法学院教授、博士生导师。 [1] 戴雄：《抗战时期中国文物损失概况》，载《民国档案》2003年第2期。[2]http://www.lootedart.com/Internationa ... ConferenceonHolocaust-EraAssets.asp[3]http://icom.museum/worldwar2.html[4] 新华网2003年2月10日。[5] http://arts.tom.com/1002/200628-25336.html[6] http://www.icrc-chinese.org/main.asp? ... id=6_6&article_id=712[7] 扬泽伟著《宏观国际法》，武汉大学出版社2001年，131页。[8] 联合国教科文组织“促进文化财产返还给原有国的政府间委员会”第14届会议资料。[9] http://www.businesswatch.com.cn/Html/gov/0632912002636804.html[10] 孟国祥著《大劫难——日本侵华对中国文化的破坏》，中国社会科学出版社2005年，276页。

这三章的标题是：李登辉加入共产党，李登辉背叛共产党始末，李登辉出卖同志？作者父亲徐庆钟先生为前台湾行政院副院长，国民党中央副秘书长，台大任教时曾为李登辉师长，在白色恐怖中为之做政治担保，后向蒋经国推荐李登辉

作者系中东问题专家，曾任外交部亚非司副司长，前驻沙特、伊拉克大使，中国前外交官联谊会副会长，中国阿拉伯友好协会委员。回忆海湾战争后伊拉克情况

如果借助王国维对形而上学乃"色空"的定义，用最通俗的话来说，资本主义的本质其实就是"买空卖空"。

保守与革命之争反映的是致命的自负：它希望由精英集团垄断政治，大众作为沉默的被代表者，由精英代理人代替他们参与政治。这种人为固化的二元格局只会继续固化政治危机，这种脆弱的精英寡头格局势必难以为继。根本而言，民主运动是抵抗这一僵化的利益同盟的唯一方式。

1970年代以来，大批简帛书籍的陆续出土，为丰富和重写中国古代学术史提供了资料与条件，促使我们对中国古代学术史进行重新思考、重新认识和重新评价。

浩达与阿明为推进知识分子与民间运动的联结、交流及对诘，从二○○三年开始，每年出版《抵抗的全球化》文集，邀约全球各地的公共知识分子撰文，既介绍和反思各地运动经验，也寻求思想的汇聚与交锋。

The world's tallest skyscraper will open soon in Dubai, even as the emirate continues to be battered by the financial crisis. Is Burj Dubai an expression of failed megalomania or proof of Dubai leader Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum's stunning vision?The view is clear, the air is soft and silky, and only a thick strip of red separates the sky and the sea at sundown. The boundary between grandeur and kitsch becomes blurred here, halfway up the Burj Dubai, the world's tallest tower.It smells of paint, varnish and new leather, and the steps of female visitors on parquet and marble produce an elegant-sounding echo that suddenly disappears when they step onto soft carpets. An artificial island in the shape of a palm tree is visible to the southwest, and farther to the north is a man-made archipelago that looks like a map of the world.But only the furniture, the carpets, the smells and the sounds are real. The rest is an illusion. The visitor isn't gazing out at the Persian Gulf from 400 meters (1,312 feet) up in the air; in fact, he or she is standing at ground level -- in a model apartment with an enormous mural stretched outside its floor-to-ceiling windows -- at the foot of a hermetically sealed building.The model apartment is located at the recently closed sales office of Emaar Properties, the real estate development company behind the Burj Dubai, which has over-extended itself -- with projects from India to Morocco -- and is now selling some of its condominiums at half the list price. After falling by 32 percent in last two weeks, Emaar's stock price gained 15 percentage points again last Thursday. Emaar, like the entire city, is on the brink of ruin, and yet it behaves as if nothing has happened.Dubai, like no other place in the world, epitomizes globalization, "innovation" and "astonishing progress," as US President Barack Obama said admiringly in his speech to the Muslim world in Cairo in June. But it also stands for mind-boggling excess. In Dubai, utopias almost feel real sometimes, and reality is sometimes nothing but a mirage.The tower, at any rate, is real. With its 160 habitable stories, it juts 818 meters (2,683 feet) into the sky. Tourists have to kneel down on the sidewalk to photograph the building in its entirety, from base to tip.The Burj Dubai is so tall that Bedouins can see it from their oases 100 kilometers (63 miles) inland and sailors can see it from their supertankers, 50 nautical miles out in the Gulf -- at least on the few winter days when the air is as clear as it's portrayed on the mural in front of the model apartment window.The tower is so enormous that the air temperature at the top is up to 8 degrees Celsius (14 degrees Fahrenheit) lower than at the base. If anyone ever hit upon the idea of opening a door at the top and a door at the bottom, as well as the airlocks in between, a storm would rush through the air-conditioned building that would destroy most everything in its wake, except perhaps the heavy marble tiles in the luxury apartments. The phenomenon is called the "chimney effect."AN ARMY OF IMMIGRANT WORKERSAn army of immigrant workers from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, who make up about two-thirds of Dubai's residents, built the Burj. Only one in five residents is considered a "local" entitled to a United Arab Emirates passport. Scores of marketing strategists take steps to ensure that no one scrapes away at the silver varnish of this architectural marvel.Security guards quickly remind anyone who comes too close to the construction site of the meaning of the word "unauthorized." Those who are invited to tour the building, or even just the grounds, are required to sign a non-disclosure agreement, the terms of which are to be obey "finally, irrevocably and unconditionally." Anyone who violates the terms can expect to face a judge in Dubai.All of this will apply for only a little more than two weeks, until Jan. 4, 2010, the official opening date -- already rescheduled several times -- when the developers hope that the tower will begin serving its purpose as a magnet for a two-square-kilometer new development zone, where the wind was still blowing empty plastic bags across the desert sand only five years ago. And when the Burj Dubai opens, it will likely be one of the last major projects for some time in a city that has risen to dizzying heights and now faces the prospect of a precipitous fall.On a single day, Tuesday of last week, prices on Dubai's stock exchange fell by an average of 6 percent. The Islamic bond issued by real estate developer Nakheel fell to 52 cents a share, at a face value of $1 per share. The rating agency Moody's downgraded six other government-related firms to junk status. Hardly anyone believes that Dubai World, the largest of these companies, will be able to refinance its $26 billion debt within six months, as originally scheduled. The US bank Morgan Stanley predicts another drastic increase in the debt restructuring needs of Dubai's government-related firms to double the current level, or about $47 billion."Within a year, Dubai went from being the best-performing real estate market to one of the world's worst," writes the International Herald Tribune. Has the Persian Gulf emirate, once praised for its seemingly dazzling future, bitten off more than it can chew? Is the role model for a future-oriented Arabian Peninsula, with aspirations to become a hub of globalization between the East and the West, nothing less than a model for the future -- a failure?Ironically, it was the Wall Street Journal, standard-bearer of the West's brand of conservative capitalism, that warned against American and European arrogance and the tendency to write off the upstarts in the Gulf region and in the Third World in general. "The old centers ... view the Dubais, the Shanghais and the Rios with suspicion and with errant conviction that their models are built on foundations of sand, ready to collapse, when it was their own foundations that have proved to be weak," the paper writes. "Judging from the misguided reaction to Dubai's challenges, the past year hasn't changed those attitudes. That should make us worried, very worried, but not about Dubai."It is too early to sound the death bell for Dubai. That, at least, is the impression the sheikhs will try to make when they open the Burj Dubai in early January.A SUPREMELY ELEGANT EDIFICEStill, it would be condescending to dispute that the tower is an impressive, supremely elegant edifice, or that it is nothing less than graceful compared with the plain, cuboids from the age of functionalism or the gaudy, modern towers in places like Kuala Lumpur and Taipei.According to the tower's US architect, Adrian Smith, the floor plan, a central core surrounded by three lobes, is patterned on the blossom structure of the Hymenocallis flower, a shape that simultaneously creates more visible surface area and reduces the wind pressure acting on buildings this tall. As it tapers upward, one of the three lobes is shifted slightly backward about every eight floors, an effect that is reminiscent of an Islamic spiral minaret and provides the tower with 26 terraces. There will be an outdoor pool on one of the terraces, on the 78th floor, and the 124th floor (at 442 meters, or 1,450 feet, above sea level) will feature the world's third-highest observation deck.Uwe Hinrichs, 68, a native of the northern German city of Bremen, had already been involved in the construction of another Dubai landmark, the sail-shaped Burj-al-Arab Hotel, when he arrived on the construction site of his life in late 2004. The concrete foundation had already been poured, on top of 850 piles, driven up to 55 meters into the desert floor to support a load of 230,000 cubic meters of concrete and 31,000 tons of steel."From a construction standpoint," says Hinrichs, "the Burj Dubai is a relatively simple structure." One of the biggest challenges, according to Hinrichs, was the logistics of the project, an around-the-clock effort that lasted five years -- five years during which people, machines and material always had to be in the right place at the right time, 24 hours a day. Coordinating the whole thing was Hinrichs' job. His levelheaded northern German disposition proved advantageous in his position as chief coordinator, as did the fact that the people he reported to had no objection to the fact that he occassionally leaves Dubai to attend a concert in Vienna or a Rembrandt exhibition in Muscat in the neighboring country of Oman.PART 2: BAILOUTS FROM ABU DHABIIn 2004, a crew of about 2,000 people began building one floor at a time, completing an average of one per week. When interior construction entered its final phase in the fall of 2009, there were 14,000 people working on the project, people from 45 nations, speaking 35 different languages -- engineers in white helmets, security personnel in red helmets and laborers in blue helmets -- and yet there was no Babylonian linguistic confusion on the site. The workers completed a total of 95 million working hours, many at starvation wages. A skilled carpenter earned no more than €12 a day, while ordinary laborers made even less.Façade components were shipped from China, marble panels from Italy and veneers from Brazil. German companies were also involved in Burj Dubai's construction: Lopark, from the western state of North Rhine-Westphalia, supplied parquet flooring, entire football fields of it. The German branch of the US firm Guardian, based in the eastern state of Saxony-Anhalt, provided 174,000 square meters (1.8 million square feet) of solar glass. Dorma, from Ennepetal in North Rhine-Westphalia, supplied hinges and fittings. Duravit provided approximately 4,000 bidets and toilets. And Miele delivered 7,650 household appliances -- the biggest single order in the company's history. Designer Giorgio Armani bought 15,200 plates and cups from Bavarian porcelain maker Rosenthal for his hotel on the first eight floors of the building.German companies also played important roles in the development and processing of the basic core material of the Burj Dubai: concrete. Because concrete dries too quickly at daytime temperatures above 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit), the concrete was poured at night. German chemical giant BASF developed a special chemical to make the concrete more malleable initially and later rigid. Putzmeister, a maker of concrete pumps near Stuttgart, provided special high-performance pumps to pump the concrete up to the 160th floor.Quietly and uneventfully, which was entirely to Hinrichs' liking, the tower grew, floor after floor -- until June 6, 2007, when the weather service at the airport e-mailed Hinrichs a satellite image showing a cyclone that had developed over the Indian Ocean, the biggest storm ever recorded in the region, which was heading directly for the Strait of Hormuz. "That was the only day in five years," says Hinrichs, "when we had to close the construction site."The Dubai tower had already surpassed all superlatives in building history. It had overtaken the 509-meter Taipei 101 Tower as the tallest inhabited building in the world, as well as Toronto's 553-meter CN Tower as the tallest freestanding structure. Dubai had arrived at what had become the most ambitious of its goals. The city, a village of pearl divers only a generation earlier, had brought a world record back to the Middle East. For almost four millennia, the Great Pyramid of Giza (138.8 meters) was the world's tallest man-made structure, before it was overtaken by Lincoln Cathedral in England (160 meters, at the time) in 1311.TREMORSWhat could now unhinge this economic miracle on the Gulf? A terrorist attack? A new Gulf war, this time against Iran? Another earthquake, even stronger than the one that hit the region on Sept. 10, 2008?On the day of the cyclone on Sept. 10, 2008, a crane operator working 700 meters above the ground had called Hinrichs to report that it was "shaking" where he was standing. Tremors had shaken the Iranian port city of Bandar Abbas, but in Dubai, few (other than the crane operator) had even noticed.Five days later, Dubai was struck by another sort of tremor, but this one had its epicenter in New York, another city of skyscrapers. On Sept. 15, 2008, Lehman Brothers, the world's fourth-largest investment bank, filed for bankruptcy.Not just Dubai, but the West, too, had been building a tower in the years of the real estate boom, a tower of debt, which now came crashing down. But despite the vast sums of money involved in the crisis in the West, it was and largely remains a strangely abstract phenomenon. Not so in Dubai, however, which reflects the financial debacle more vividly than any other city in the world."Classic megalomania seems to have migrated from people's minds to the system itself. Nowadays the system is crazier than the people," says German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk. "That's why we, as human beings, are terribly disappointed by the course of the crisis. There was not a single colorful individual (in Europe) to make the crisis more interesting. I've never seen such an enormous conspiracy of petty bourgeoise people than at the moment."Sloterdijk may be right when it comes to the bankers, analysts and finance ministers of the West. But he apparently has never heard of Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, 60, a horse breeder and poet, a lover of fast powerful cars, an avid falconer and a juggler of billions. Maktoum is the ruler of Dubai and the prime minister of the United Arab Emirates. "Many leaders make promises," he said in February 2008, when the Free University of Berlin awarded him its medal of honor, "but we deliver."Maktoum had artificial islands built in the waters off his city, with names like The Palm, The World and The Universe. Not just the Free University, but the entire West was fascinated by his energy and optimism. Like the thoroughbred horses in his racing stable, he sent the most capable of his lieutenants into the orbit of globalization, and along the way they built new towers, bought ports and sent airliners out into the world.'CRISIS? WHAT CRISIS?'One real estate company after the next was founded -- Dubai Holding, Dubai Properties, Tatweer, Meraas, Sama -- and it soon became difficult to keep track of who was building what and with whose money. Apparently not even the sheikh himself was always in the know.Only about a year ago, investors were still crowding into the "CityScape Dubai" real estate convention. Former race-car driver Michael Schumacher was there, touting a skyscraper with a covered yacht berth. Nakheel, which is now in very dire financial straits, was seriously talking about the possibility of building a 1,000-meter tower. And, on the palm-shaped Jumeirah island, Dubai spent $20 million on fireworks to celebrate the opening of the fairytale Atlantis Hotel. "Crisis?" the city seemed to ask, "what crisis?"A year few weeks later, one of Sheikh Mohammed's officials presented the bill: Dubai had amassed $80 billion in debt, $50 billion of which, or about two-thirds of its gross domestic product, was scheduled to mature by 2013.For a few days, the sheikh suddenly disappeared from the scene. Rumors emerged he was ill and that he was "melancholy." Then he reappeared and began to whitewash the situation, claiming that the crisis had not affected Dubai, that Dubai had actually overcome the crisis, and that Dubai and its wealthy neighbor, Abu Dhabi, were as close and inseparable as brothers.But the "brothers" from the neighboring sheikdom, with whom the Dubaians form the bulk of the United Arab Emirates, no longer wanted any part of Dubai's excesses. Abu Dhabi has 7 percent of worldwide oil reserves, and its 64-year-old emir, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al-Nahyan, is the president of the UAE, while Dubai's Sheikh Mohammed is only its premier -- and Abu Dhabi now views the prestigious activities of his relative in the neighboring emirate with growing mistrust, and probably some envy.At the beginning of the year, Abu Dhabi rescued Dubai from the worst of its problems with a $20 billion cash injection. The emirate stepped in again earlier this week, providing Dubai with an additional $10 billion in financial aid. The emirate may have abundant assets in its $500 billion sovereign wealth fund, but how much longer will it be willing to bailout its neighbor? The sheikhs of Abu Dhabi seem to prefer to spend their money on sounder, more sustainable projects, such as an emissions-free eco-city called Masdar, where the emirate plans to conduct research on projects for the post-petroleum age.In the last four weeks, the sheikh has revealed -- not always voluntarily -- how serious the crisis is and how deeply it affects him. At first, the normally restrained sheikh lost his composure and told the critical Western media to "shut up," and then he dismissed three of his closest advisers on the emirate's central financial council. A short time later, he waxed poetic when he described the crisis as "the fruit-bearing tree that becomes the target of stone-throwers."PART 3: A SYMBOL OF EARTHLY TEMPTATIONIn truth, Sheikh Mohammed, the poet-prince, has good reasons to look forward to the day when the Burj Dubai opens its doors. With one snip of the red ribbon, he will be taking up the thread of a great epic, a saga of humanity that goes well beyond the financial problems of a debt-ridden Gulf emirate. Once before, the Eastern World is said to have been the home another groundbreaking tower, in Babylon, the legendary Mesopotamian city between the Tigris and the Euphrates.Archeologists have confirmed that the Tower of Babel did indeed exist in the 3rd century B.C. They estimate that the skyscraper of antiquity was 90 meters tall, a marvel of the day, and was constructed on a platform that was 90 meters square. If this were true, the tower would have been one-ninth as tall as the latest wonder of the modern world. According to the Bible, the Tower of Babel was much more than a building, but rather a symbol of earthly temptation. "Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves." These words, which sound strikingly like a motto of today's rulers of Dubai, are in fact from the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament. Even today, many of the faithful believe that endeavoring to be like God is a presumption that must invariably lead to punishment.MEGALOMANIA OR A GRAND ACHIEVEMENT?Nevertheless, the excessive building of cities and towers seems to be a cross-cultural constant, a dream and nightmare alike for mankind, from the Babylonians to the heroes and villains of the present. The ruler of Dubai isn't the only one who has carried out his plans in reinforced concrete and gleaming facades.President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan had Astana, an entire city of monumental avenues, triumphal arches and pyramids built as his new capital, where marble contrasts with granite, buildings are topped by gigantic glass domes and, on the Bayterek Tower, every subject can place his or her hand in a golden imprint of the president's hand.In the Burmese jungle, dictatorial generals had an absurd new capital, Naypyidaw, or "Seat of the Kings," conjured up out of nothing. Yamoussoukro, the capital of Côte d'Ivoire and a memorial to the country's now-deceased first president, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, is even a step closer to the brink. The city is filled with grandiose buildings, but there are hardly any people to be seen. The Basilica of Notre Dame de la Paix is a piece of lunacy inspired by the Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican, but the African church is even bigger than St. Peter's. Indeed, it is the world's largest Catholic church.It is easy to ridicule the megalomaniacs and their hubris and to rail against the record-breaking mania reflected in their ostentatious buildings, phallic symbols of the rise to power of nouveau-riche potentates.And yet, aren't Brasilia and Canberra, the South American and Australian versions of the man-made model city, remarkable successes? Hasn't history proven at least a few visionaries right, people whose achievements we continue to marvel at today: the creators of Giza on the Nile, Machu Picchu in the Andes and Angkor in Cambodia, or the planners of St. Petersburg?Today, the pyramids of the pharaohs, the mountain fortress of the Incas and the sacral ruins of the Khmer are admired as part of the world's cultural heritage, places that attest to man's greatness. They are the great and magnificent achievements of past eras. Nowadays, the center of St. Petersburg -- designed on the drawing board, like Dubai today, more than 300 years ago -- is still considered an ideal city and an example of successful urban planning.Where the emirates are built on sand, the banks of the Neva River were once swampland. At the behest of the czar, St. Petersburg was not just created as Russia's window to the West, but as a reflection of what the modernists of the day defined as utopian. "Now, city of Peter, stand thou fast, Foursquare, like Russia; vaunt thy splendor! The very element shall surrender And make her peace with thee at last," Alexander Pushkin, the congenial poetic counterpart to Peter the Great, wrote in his poem "The Bronze Horseman." It was pure hubris, cast in the form of magnificent verse.What happens today in Dubai -- or in Shanghai or Astana -- generally happens under the conditions of an authoritarian form of government. In democracies, people cannot be dispossessed and driven off their property but, instead, can hire attorneys to assert their rights. In democracies, more or less reasonable building codes and ordinances, as well as licensed appraisers, ensure that uncontrolled growth and injustices are kept in check. But this limiting effect also applies to creativity, spontaneity and "positive" megalomania, resulting in a general leveling of things.THE VIRTUE OF TAKING THE PLUNGE"This society is mediocre," the poet and sharp-tongued contemporary critic Hans Magnus Enzensberger once wrote about German reality. "Its political leaders and its works of art are mediocre, as are its representatives and its taste, its joys, its opinions, its architecture, its media, its fears, vices and afflictions." And then, in his essay "Mediocrity and Delusion," Enzensberger writes: "There is something cathartic about this realization."Somewhere between Western suburbs and Yamoussoukro lies Dubai. Whether its Burj, its tower, will ever become a part of the world's cultural heritage is still open, as is the question of how long it will remain the world's tallest structure. China, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are already planning towers that will be much taller than the Burj Dubai, reaching more than 1,000 meters into the sky.In the Book of Isaiah, the Bible describes the fall of Babel as follows: "And suddenly your downfall will come, and it will come unexpectedly." If the words of the Old Testament are to be believed, the megalomaniacal tower builders of today cannot expect external support: "Thus shall they be unto thee with whom thou hast labored, even thy merchants, from thy youth: They shall wander every one to his quarter; none shall save thee."The Burj Dubai was not cheap, and perhaps it was even unaffordable. But at least the sheikhs of Dubai have taught their contemporaries one virtue: the virtue of taking the plunge.

美国宪法稳定性不是一个历史事实，而是一个政治想象。但需要说明的是，历史事实和政治想象并非相互排斥。相反，两者共同构成了美国宪政想象的整体结构。正是因为有了历史断裂，统一性和稳定性的宪法断裂才更为重要和珍贵。

对于云南藏区的防疫-医疗-保健工作，主要是应立足于普通社区成员的健康，而不是他们的财富增长和他们所在社区的经济开发。从以人为本的角度出发.