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  1. 赵园:“今之人谁肯迂者!”
    2011/02/27 | 阅读: 1367
    后来读黄宗羲的《思旧录》,其中写陈龙正投书刘宗周,黄宗羲看了后,说:“迂论。”刘宗周却说:“今之人谁肯迂者!”“今之人谁肯迂者”,这句话正可用于樊骏。
  2. 陈嘉映:语言转向之后
    2011/03/04 | 阅读: 1326
    “语言转向”的核心意义在于坚持哲学之为概念考察,以抵抗把哲学转变为伪实证科学的倾向。然而,这一努力被广泛理解为应将哲学问题视作语言问题,引使人们把哲学混淆于语言学和语义学。本文通过明确哲学的反身性质,划清哲学和语言学、语义学的界限。
  3. 李学勤: 清华简《(耆)夜》
    2011/03/02 | 阅读: 1983
    简文的后一半,更令人惊异。原文说:“周公秉爵未饮,蟋蟀造降于堂”,蟋蟀即促织,周公见蟋蟀在堂,作了《蟋蟀》一诗。上海博物馆战国竹简《诗论》讲“《蟋蟀》知难”,正与此相应。《诗序》虽然说《蟋蟀》是刺西周晚期晋僖公(厘侯)的诗,所云“欲其及时以礼自虞乐也。此晋也而谓之唐,本其风俗,忧深思远,俭而用礼,乃有尧之遗风焉”,对于诗意的体会还是不错的。
  4. 王震邦:孙行者/胡适之──陈寅恪的「对对子」争议
    2011/03/02 | 阅读: 2399
    陈寅恪给答案时,胡适已在台湾逝世三年。依胡适的聪明,当时即应知道陈寅恪要考生对的答案就是他,但无论如何都不方便自行「对号入座」。唯考生当时对出「胡适之」的却大有其人,后来在学界皆属名家。例如曾任北大数学系主任的段学复、北大中文系教授周祖谟、中国社科院历史所研究员张政烺等
  5. 李零:孔迹:大地上的《论语》
    2011/03/06 | 阅读: 2262
    “丧家狗”的出典我已经写在这本书的正文里面了,我对它的一点发挥,就是上面这句“任何怀抱理想,在现实世界找不到精神家园的人都是丧家狗”。我书题下面的话是夫子自嘲,不是骂孔子,我之所以笃定地、不愿放弃这个题目,是因为我觉得这三个字一是夫子之道,二是它最深刻地概括了孔子悲剧性的一生。
  6. 李猛:指向事情本身的教育:奥古斯丁的《论教师》
    2011/03/13 | 阅读: 2148
    引言、奥古斯丁与自由教育在奥古斯丁的著作中,《论教师》(De Magistro)②是一篇早期对话,除了近来引起一些关心语言和符号问题的哲学家的兴趣以外.在现代一向不大被人注意。③在其晚年的《修正》一书(Retractationes 1.12)中,奥古斯丁对这部作品的讨论非常简短:“在那时,我写了一本题为《 论教师》 的书,在这本书中,经过辩论和探究确立了如下观点:除了上帝以外.没有任何教师能够教给人以知识,正如福音所言:‘只有一位是你们的老师,就是基督’… … ”《修正》 对这篇早期对话的讨论没有提到任何修正, 考虑到奥古斯丁本人对早期著作的严厉态度,这一点多少有些令人惊讶.恐怕不会只出于一个父亲对早夭的爱子的感情。④ 从《修正》的角度看,也就是从所谓“成熟的”奥古斯丁的角度来看,或许《论教师》 这篇早期对话.在一些非常重要的方面 ,包含了进人奥古斯丁整个思想的人手点。但为什么一篇探讨教师和教育的对话会选择父与子作为对话者呢?《忏悔录》 提供了理解这部作品的重要线索。这本书的第9卷以死亡与再生为主题,在这一卷叙述他的受洗时,奥古斯丁提到了这篇对话。他首先谈到的是他的私生子阿德奥达图斯(Adeodatus))。《论教师》中奥古斯丁的对话者:“除了我们以外.我们还加上了阿德奥达图斯这个孩子.因我的罪,在肉体上是我的儿子。是你很好地塑造了他。他15岁.他的才华胜过许多受人尊重的而且受过良好教育的人(doctos)。我向你告白 , 这是你的恩赐.我的主,万物的造物主,具有大能赋护我们的畸形以好的形(formare nostra deformia):因为对于这个孩子.除了我的罪,我没有给他任何东西。而除你之外也无人启发我们培养他有关你的学问,所以我向你告白,这是你的恩赐”(Confessiones, 9.6.14,cf.4.2.2)⑤。值得一提的是,第9卷的核心场景是奥古斯丁母亲去世前一天母子两人在Ostia谈话时的神秘体验(9.l0.23-26)。这次谈话的双方,一方是受过良好教育(Doctus)的儿子.而另一方则是没有受过正规教育的母亲,但她却“在心中的学校中接受内在的教师”(Magistro intimo in schola pectoris)的教导。在《忏悔录》中,第9 卷的这个场景几乎最接近奥古斯丁所寻求的幸福生活。而此前,他尽管通过对柏拉图派书籍的阅读完成了理智意义的上升(7.17.23),却并没有真正解决自已的困惑。皈依(第8 卷)和洗礼(第9卷)构成了第7 卷失败的努力和第9卷“神秘体验”之间的关键差别。耶稣基督在这一‘过程‘中扮演了重要的角色,而这一点与《论教师》的主题有着密切的关系。也就是说,根据奥古斯丁的“忏悔”,真正幸福的生活,并不能在古代哲学的典籍中找到。古代异教哲学中最伟大的哲学家仍然不能向我们指明通向永久幸福的道路。而相反,对知识的自然欲望中包含了危险的诱惑(所谓“好奇”,Curiositas,1.10 .16 ),⑥往往会带来了不虔敬的骄傲(impiam superbiam, 5.3.4),名为思想和知识,其实不过是虚幻和好奇的欲望(vana et curiosa cupiditas, l0.35.54 ) ,而要接近幸福,就必须战胜这种诱惑。不过,克服“眼的欲求”,并不是不看。奥古斯丁的“智慧”,不是来自希伯莱式的倾听,而仍然首先和主要是希腊式的“看”,只不过是在另一种光照下(参见10.35.54 )。奥古斯丁并不像德尔图良一样,认为反对“好奇”,就意味着信就足够了。奥古斯r丁在《 忏悔录》 中描述的对自已灵魂和上帝的探索,不只是信仰,也是对信仰的理解。⑦ 如果这种智慧或理解,也是一种“思”( Cogitatio )的话,那么它来自哪里呢?正是在这里,自由教育的问题成为理解奥古斯丁思想及其与古典世界的关系的一个关键。虽然奥古斯丁在古典的自由教育方面受过良好的训练,但在《忏悔录》他却没有提及任何世俗意义的教师。而且更重要的是,在皈依前,奥古斯丁本人的职业就是从事自由教育的教师。而用他自已的话说,他的这种生活不过是在各种欲望中诱骗和被诱骗而已(4.1.1)。这种教育或者技艺只是所谓的“自由”而已(4.1.1.4.l6.30),而实际上,他不过是“贫嘴集市”上的词语贩子,从他的嘴里为学生的疯狂提供武器罢了(9.2.2)。撇开这些对修辞术的修辞贬低,实质的问题是为什么自由教育或自由技艺并非真正的自由,反而为人的疯狂和欺骗提供工具。要考察这个问题,我们需要首先回到《忏悔录》中奥古斯丁对自己童年教育的“回忆”。在这个著名的段落中(1.8.13 ),⑧奥古斯丁明确指出,他学会如何说话.并非大人们教会了他,⑨而是他自己借助上帝给他的心智教会了自己。在奥古斯丁描述的这个语言学习过程中,童年的“我”,借助这种上帝恩赐给他的内在能力,努力表达自己内心的感受.好让别人服从自己的意志。恰恰为了表达我自己的意志,“我”慢慢学会如何像别人一样使用符号。通过运用符号,我能够向我身边的那些人沟通我的意志,从而更深地踏人到人类生活暴风骤雨般的社会中(vitae humanae procellosam societatem altius ingressus sum) ,开始依赖父母的权威和大人的指令。在奥古斯丁的这段“回忆”中,我们发现了一个奇异的转折:符号的学习和使用,尽管和所有学习一样,并非是别人教会的,但我学习符号,却是通过自已的努力,为了建立自身意志的支配,从而踏入到社会之中,建立了别人的权威。学习符号的过程,正是社会通过造就自我的权力而建立自身支配的过程。整个自由教育,在某种意义,不过是这个符号学习过程的延续和深化。奥古斯丁以其惯有的简练和深刻概括了自由教育的世俗动机:自从“我”的童年开始,人们就指出,我要正当地生活(recte vivere),就必须服从那些告诫我的人——必须在此世得到荣华富贵(in hoc saeculo florerem),必须在口舌的技艺上出类拔萃,从而有助于我们得到世的荣誉和虚假的财富(l.9.4)。通过服从学习支配,凭借杰出的技艺来欺骗他人(参见3.3.6),在支配中得到荣誉,在欺骗中获得财富,最终成功地欺骗自己。这样的“正当生活”就是奥古斯丁勾勒的自由教育所造就的人与社会。在自由教育造就人的过程中,对玩乐的贪爱(amore lucendi),想要赢的骄傲(superbas victoris)和好奇(curiositate),这三种构成人世不幸处境的诱惑(“肉的欲求”、“世俗野心”和“眼的欲求”) ,交织在一起发挥作用(l.l.16)。其中,世俗野心是最根本的动力。教育的动机就是要“此世的荣华富贵”。因此,无论教师还是学生,在“自由教育”中得到培养的,是一种努力想要超过别人的欲望(例如superabar,1.9.15)。自由教育不过是“骄傲的学校”(superbiae scholam,9.4.7)。自荷马以来,荣誉就是古典教育的重要出发点。⑩如果把荣誉看作是对德性的褒奖的话(亚里士多德,《尼各马可伦理学》1124al ),那么古代社会围绕“德性”进行的道德教育,其自然出发点正是荣誉。与“自由教育”相对的“工匠教育”是谋生的技艺,培养人成为工具,因而它使人的灵魂卑下(亚里士多德,《政治学》,1337b15)。在这个意义上,“自由教育”即“高贵的教育”( 1338a30 )。其着眼点,最初,即使不是最终,乃是培养与城邦的政体相应的习性(ethos),城邦的政体开始是由这种习性奠立的,也需要依靠这种习性来保卫。民主的习性建立和保卫了民主的政体,寡头的习性则建立和保卫了寡头的政体,而一个更好的政体,必须源于更好的习性(l337a15—19 )。古典城邦中政治与教育之间的紧密关系正是通过“荣誉”的纽带建立起来的,因为政治生活中对“荣誉”的追求,在某种意义上,正是其目的所在(《尼各马可伦理学》 l095b23 , 1177b14 ); “对荣誉的追求”甚至可以看作是人区别于其他动物的关键(色诺芬,《僭主》,7.3)。11然而,如果一个人的祖国(patria)注定不在此世,在此世,他不过是一个永远漫游的陌生人(De Doctrina Chistiana, 1.4.4) ,此世也不过是他返乡途中暂时歇脚的客舍逆旅,而绝作他的“父母之邦”(patria civis, De Trinitate,11.6.10) ,那么,根源于城邦政治的自由教育,就不再必然具有任何政治意义,而这种教育所借助的“荣誉”,也从人的自然欲望变成了虚幻的“世俗野心”,成为检验人是否能够回到自己的“考验”。12因此,奥古斯丁才会对自由教育中经常出现的“骄傲”充满警惕,即使在这种自由教育已经在很大程度上被改造为向上帝上升的工具时,他也时刻告诫他的同伴不要为了荣耀的缘故(gloriandi causa)来讨论问题(De Ordine,1.10.29)。但消除了虚幻荣耀带来的热情可能会带来另一种危险,即学习热情冷却成为一种无所作为的懒惰(De Ordine, 1.10.30)。这里并非简单的学习心理学的问题,而涉及自由教育在奥古斯丁的新世界中的根本困难。奥古斯丁在米兰受洗之后,一度试图撰写一系列有关自由教育诸分支的对话(disciplinarum libros, Retractationes,l.6)。在《论秩序》(De Ordine)中,已经摆脱古典意义的自由教育的奥古斯丁, 努力想在基督教生活中为自由教育找到一个新的位置,13《论秩序》中勾勒的返回自身灵魂,向上帝上升的阶梯,在很大程度是自由教育的阶梯(2.8 .25- 2.16 .44,参见1.8.24,2.5.15)。14 然而,奥古斯丁不得不承认,能够循此阶梯上升,最终可以称为“博学”的人,即使在受过良好教育的人中,也屈指可数。因为,这样的人需要有才华和闲暇,还要生活丰裕,到达了一定的年纪等等(2.16.44)。外在条件和自然禀赋上的诸多要求,使得通过自由教育的阶梯达到对上帝和自我灵魂的认识变得几乎遥不可及。这里,奥古斯丁对他尚不能正确拼写的母亲莫妮卡的安慰,显得多少有些无可奈何(2.17.45)。换句话说,古典自由教育之所以能够借助“世俗野心”,使一个人变得更加“高贵”,正是因为政治生活追求的“荣誉”和所谓沉思生活追求的“快乐”,具有某种类似的人性基础。15 但古典自由教育的这种自然出发点,在奥古斯丁的分析中,恰恰构成了此世最根本的诱惑,是陌生人在返回 “祖国”的途中要竭力克服的危险(De Trinitate,12.10.15)。如何克服古典自由教育的自然卓越和自然高贵的问题,不仅涉及到幸福生活对于绝大多数人是否可能的问题,甚至涉及幸福生活在根本上是否可能的问题。16因此,对于奥古斯丁来说,如果基督徒仍然在一定程度需要保留古典意义上的自由教育,那么就必须赋予这些“埃及人的金银和衣裳”以新的用途(De Doctrina Christiana,2.40.60,《出埃及记》 3.22.11,2.12.35;参见Confessiones,7.915 )。换句话说,古典自由教育本身不再是目的,而不过是用于某个新的目的的“工具”。因此.需要重新厘清古典自由教育的人性基础。在彻底批判古典自由教育的基础的同时,奥古斯丁必须回答,在“陌生人”回到祖国的途中,他是否需要教育;如果需要,是什么样的教育;这样的教育究竟属于他的“祖国”,还是他在返回祖国的路上借用他人的行李和干粮,不过是暂时用以维持生计罢了?如果说,在柏拉图的笔下,苏格拉底和一个从未学过几何学的奴隶的对话,揭示了所谓“智者的教育革命”肇始的“职业教育”时代所面临的根本问题,17那么,奥古斯丁,选择他的儿子作为《论教师》的对话者,就是要借助一个没有受过正规的古典自由教育的孩子,18来思考教育对于现代陌生人的意义。一、说话与教育《论教师》的开头是一个非常简单的问题:“对你来说,当我们说话时,我们希望做到什么?”面对奥古斯丁提出的这个普通的问题,阿德奥达图斯的回答却非常奇怪,“就我现在能想到的,要么是教,要么是学”( aut docore aut discere )。对于我们来说,教育是一个特殊的问题,而“说话”则要普遍得多。19阿德奥达图斯的回答,把教育与人最常见的活动联系在一起:当我们说话时,我们要么是在教给人东西,要么是在从别人那里学习东西。希腊传统认为,人是会说话的动物,而根据阿德奥达图斯的回答,这个对人的古典规定实际上意味着人是一种教育或被教育的动物。如果教育是规定人的某种根本活动,那么,这里的所谓“教育”就不仅仅限于某个特殊的制度(比如学校)。通常我们所说的“教育”,所谓“受过良好教育的人”(doctos)。只不过涉及这个更为根本的教育的一个侧面。制度化教育的问题,必须回到与人的本性,或者说人的根本困境,联系在一起的,作为本源意义的教育来理解。面对阿德奥达图斯的回答, 奥古斯丁的态度初看上去令人有此摸不着头脑:“我看到了你说的这此观点中的一点,并对此表示同意,显然我们想要通过说话来教(loquendo docere)。但我们如何通过说话来学(discere)呢? ” (1.1.7-8)在奥古斯丁看来,阿德奥达图斯的回答其实包含了不止一个观点,而他看到和赞同的只是其中的一个观点,即我们确实想要通过说话来教;但“我们想要通过说话来学”却是一个有待考察的问题。我们通常认为,教育包含两个同时发生的过程:教与学。教育就是“教师交给学生某此东西”。因此,教育需要探讨的不过是(1)哪此人才是真正的教师;(2)什么样的学生才能够学习到东西;或者对许多人更重要的是(3)什么样的东西是可以教和可以学的,如何“教学”。对(l)和(2)的回答在某种意义上取决于对(3)的回答。不过,我们通常都假定.教师教的东西自然也是学生学的东西,教育的成功取决于这个传授过程的成功,取决于教的过程和学的过程的一致性。根据这样一种“机械”模式,所谓“教育”就是“传授”, “拿到”就是“学会”,而“拥有”就是“知道”。简言之,教育就是“灌输”。20在这个意义上,教育等于意见的说服。21当“教”与“学”之间发生了偏差,教育就意味着失败。22在这样的理解中,教师急于让自己的声音成为学生的声音,l而好的学生就是教师的“回声”。苏格拉底属于最伟大的教师之列,但我们都多少遗憾地感到他的教育并没有获得这样的成功。因为苏格拉底没有“回声”。23阿尔希比亚德的经历好像证明了,即使对于最伟大的哲学家来说,哲学的教育也不仅潜在上是危险的,而且在效果也往往是失败的。24而在柏拉图的对话那里,我们似乎也不过一次次见证了苏格拉底式的教育的失败。苏格拉底不仅未能说服对他充满敌意的城邦,未能赢得智者的帮助, 甚至在那些崇敬他热爱他并力图捍卫他的事业的学生身上,我们也没有看到苏格拉底成功地实现了教学“传递”。我们甚至可以说,柏拉图对话之所以构成西方思想不断折返的“起点”,就在于对话中的“苏格拉底”的教育在根本上是失败的:那此在阅读对话私淑苏格拉底的学生也从来没有成功地“拿到”,更不用说“拥有”,苏格拉底的教诲。我们的“学”从来不能与苏格拉底的“教”一致。《美诺篇》中美诺的感觉形象地表达了苏格拉底式的教育给普通人,或者更准确说,那此知识分子和职业教育者,带来的挫败感:“苏格拉底.在我遇到你之前,我就听说你总是既让自己困惑,也让别人困惑,而现在,在我看来,你就在施魔法,给我灌了迷药,就是让我被你迷倒,结果我变得充满了困惑( aporias )。 如果允许我说句笑话,在我看来,无论在形上还是其他方面,你处处都像海里著名的电鱼,谁要是靠近它,碰了它,就会立即变得浑身麻痹,做不出声。而现在你似乎就对我产生了这种效果,我的灵魂和舌头都麻痹无声,我不能回答你”(79c-80a,参见《 泰阿泰德篇》119a)奥古斯丁对“教”与“学”的分辨,钊对的正是这种对“教育”的教条态度。所谓“教条”,不过是通过“教”传达的某种“教诲”(doctrina), 其实是一种“学说”,即能够从别人那里学来。因为我的占有,从而能够再次教给别人的道理。但奥古斯丁却提醒我们注意,我们说的所有话,即使当我们问问题时,也总是在试图教给别人东西,试图说服别人,试图让别人服从我们的意志,而不是在“学”东西。在这里,奥古斯丁的质疑秉承的正是古典自由教育的精神。25 但“教”与“学”的分离,提出一个几乎难以解决的问题:如果说话都是在“教”,我们如何“学”呢?如果说阿德奥达图斯的回答是将“教育”置于人性的根源的话,那么,奥古斯丁的态度则几乎否定了“教育”的可能胜。如果“教”与“学”是分离的,“教育”不就不仅注定是失败的,而且成为一种本质上不可能的活动吗?二、符号的游戏:“教”的困境尽管借助一段对“祈祷”的讨论引入了上帝的教诲问题,但奥古斯丁并没有因此直接讨论“教”与“学”的关系,而是转向了一段有关“符号”问题的漫长“插话”。这部分似乎离题的讨论,占了全文三分之一的篇幅。甚至奥古斯丁自己也承认,“经过这么多的周折,在这里很难说你和我努力要达到什么(目标)? ”似乎为了进一步证明我们的怀疑,奥古斯丁接着说,“也许你会认为我们不过是在用一些孩子气的探究来进行游戏(ludere)而使心智偏离严肃的事情,或者我们探寻的不过是一些结果微不足道或平平常常的东西,或者,如果你猜想这番讨论会带来一些重要的结果,你也想要直截了当地知道它是什么,或至少直截了当地听到它”。奥古斯丁接下来的话表明这些并非单纯的修辞:“虽然我想要你相信,在这次谈话中,我并没有进行一些毫无念义的游戏(vilia ludicra)。不过,我们也许确实是在游戏(ludamus)。但这件事本身却不应该被视为是孩子气的,我们也不应该认为这件事的好处微不足道或是平平常常( 7.20.5-15)。奥古斯丁的这番“周折”探究的热点是“符号”问题:是否我们可以不用符号来“教诲”。这段讨论并没有任何“直截了当”的结论。初看上去,它更像是西塞罗笔下经常出现的辩证法练习。关于“符号”和“教育”的讨论,大概正如奥古斯丁承认的那样,“也许确实是在游戏”, 但这个“符号”的“游戏”,“却不是为了游戏的缘故,而是为了锻炼心智的力量和敏锐,而借此我们不仅能够担负,而且能够热爱幸福生活所在的那个地方的热和光”( 7.20.20ff.参见Soliloquia, 2.19. 31)。对奥古斯丁这段对话中有关符号问题的“插话”,我们不能只关心奥古斯丁自已给出的结论。实际上,奥古斯丁在《论教师》中面临的“符号游戏”的困境,与柏拉图在《斐德若篇》中考虑的问题非常类似。(274c,275b)如果所有的“教诲”都无法脱离符号的话,那么,所有的教诲都必定是一种“游戏”( “我们也许确实是在游戏”) ,而不是“教诲”试图指向的“事情本身”。但在什么意义上,这种“游戏”不是为了游戏本身,甚至不是为了让我们的心智“偏离”事情本身呢?难道奥古斯丁提供的,不同样是“智慧的意见”, 而非“真理”,是导致遗忘的“毒药”,而非“记忆的良药”吗?对“教育”中“符号游戏”的重视,表明奥古斯丁非常清楚,教育不得不面对这种人性的“软弱”。而且奥古斯丁发现,这种“软弱”恰恰是符号教育真正的基础。在对圣经《创世纪》(2.5—6)的注释中,奥古斯丁指出,最初,人的“灵魂”(圣经经文所谓“野地里的草木”和“田间的菜蔬)是从驻留在自身最内在的真理(de intimis suis manante veritate)那里得到滋润的。在那时,上帝可以直接对它的理智说话,而无需求助外在的言词。( loquens in intellectum eius: ut non extrinsecus verba exciperet. De Genesi contra Manichaeos,2.4.5)。但因为骄傲的罪,人的灵魂只能在地上劳作奔忙,而不再能从内在的泉源(fonte intimo)中得到水的浇灌。所以,人的灵魂若要生长,就需要真理的雨水,这雨水只能来自云。所谓云,根据奥古斯丁,就是出自人言的教诲 (doctrinam de humanis verbis,2.5.6)。而对于在地上劳作奔忙的人来说,云是必不可少的,因为骄傲乃是此世不可克服的诱惑(Confessiones,10.36.59)。因此,在奥古斯丁这里,作为“符号游戏”的“教育”.不是“娱乐”,而是“适于我们软弱脚步的台阶”( 7.20.16)。陌生人要从遥远的异乡回家(de longinquo redire),就必须经过适于人性的道路(De Trinitate,4.1.1)。通向幸福生活的漫长路程,经历的是“符号”, 而非符号指称的事情本身。符号的游戏正是使陌生人成为陌生人的教育。陌生人的教育首先要通过“符号的游戏”来磨砺我们的“心智”,从而使它“不仅能够担负,而且能够热爱幸福生活所在的那个地方的热与光”。为了回家真正能够看到,而且一旦看到,能信守看到的东西,陌生人在返回祖国的航程(navigationem ad patriam,De Doctrina Christiana,1.10.10)中必须做好准备。因为幸福生活所在的地方是“软弱”的人所不能担负的,从而在某种意义上是“软弱”的人要逃避的,他们因为习惯,更喜欢冷和昏暗的地方。对于这此人来说,让他们不能看光的眼睛马上接触光,是危险的。因此,要锻炼他们。而锻炼就是向他们展现那此不是靠自已的光而是借助别的光照亮的东西。对于那些最渴求智慧,看但却不清楚的人来说,这样的事情正是最好的老师要做的,是好的教育的职责所在(Soliloquia,1.6.12,1.13.23)。不过,好的“教育”为热爱智慧的人提供的最重要的准备,是培养他们的爱,让他们能够“热爱”“热和光”。只有这样,“符号的游戏”才不是娱乐的“诗歌”,更不是“孩子气”的。在这里,奥古斯丁为自由教育规定了新的方向。要理解奥古斯丁有关符号游戏的讨论对于他的教育思想的意义,我们必须首先回到自由教育的古典表述。根据亚里士多德,“工匠教育”之所以不自由,不仅在于它使心智(dianoia)卑下,更重要的是它使人的心智不安闲、烦忙(ascholos)(《政治学》, 1337b14-5)。自由教育设置读写、体育、音乐乃至绘画的原则,在于自然本身不仅寻求能够正确地做事(ascholein orthos),更要能美好地安闲(scholazein kalos)。做事(烦忙)和不做事(安闲)之别,不仅是教育的区分原则,更是整个城邦立法的根本考虑,因为就人而言,无论最好的人,还是最好的政体,都涉及于安闲有关的德性,就公就私而言,这都是人的目的,奴隶才没有不做事的安闲(《政治学》 1334a5,a11以下)。亚里士多德甚至称这一点为万物的原则,而安闲比起烦忙更应该成为人追求的目标(1337b33-5 )。安闲与烦忙的根本差别,在于烦忙的人关心的恰恰不是他手边忙着做的东西,而是不在眼前,他此刻无缘享受的东西;但对于安闲的人来说,他眼前的快乐就是目的本身(1138a4 —6)。因此,自由教育之所以在根本上和人最高的自然有关,正在于这种学习以其本身的快乐为目的,这种接近神的快乐,能够成全他的本性(《尼各马可伦理学》第10卷第5 章以及第6 卷第14 章,《形而上学》 l048b18以下),而那些为了别的目的进行的学习,不过是人迫不得已谋求生计的结果,因此在根本上属于“工匠教育”。音乐就是一个极好的例子:作为古典自由教育的重要部分,它既非人不得不学的东西,也不是因为它有用,而是因为它,作为一种教育.自由而美好(1138a9-32)。但在奥古斯丁看来,音乐的意义在于的用处:悦耳的音乐可以通过耳朵的愉悦在软弱的心灵中激发虔敬的情感。然而根据奥古斯丁自己的忏悔,即使在他版依后,当他听到美妙的音乐,打动他的也经常是歌咏的音符,而非歌中咏唱的“事情”(me amplius cantus quam res, quae canitur, moveat)。当人们安享音乐本身的优美时.音乐也就就成了导致人犯罪的诱惑(Confessiones,10.33.50 )。26 只有当人们不再把自由教育本身看作是生活的目的,自由教育才能像“埃及人的衣裳”一样,派上新的用场。因此,对于奥古斯丁来说,符号游戏的意义就在于它是有用的教育,而它之所以有用,又在于它必然指向自身之外。符号与事情的根本差别,就在于符号,哪怕是作为游戏的符号,也只是有所利用的工具,而非安享的快乐。一旦我们耽乐于符号游戏本身,安享那些我们本来应该利用的东西,贪欲把持了人心,诱惑战胜了我们自已,我们就不再希望尽快结束我们在异乡的旅程,而反而安于做个陌生人,享受这种“倒错的甜蜜”( De Doctirna Christiana,1.2.2-4.4)。相反.根据奥古斯丁赋予这种教育的用途,符号的游戏即使令我们感到愉悦,以至于我们愿意不无快乐地在其中歇息,我们也应该清楚,它和此世的所有东西一样,绝非我们的目的地,而是永远指向别的地方(De Trinitate,11.6.10)。换句话说,符号游戏并非娱乐,但更不是人生本身的目的。教育,如果指的是对人眼睛的训练,使它能够自已看到光,那么,教育,无沦多么自由,都不是自由本身。教育只是陌生人回家的道路,而不是他安身的家。不过.这仍然不能回答阿德奥达图斯提出的问题,为什么不能直截了当地告诉他,或者说让他听到,那些真正重要的东西。三、从符号到事情本身:教育作为唤醒让我们重新回到《 论教师》的开头。在那里,奥古斯丁就已经提示我们应该如何理解“符号的游戏”了。当阿德奥达图斯质疑他的父亲.指出有些时候我们说话井不是为了“教”给别人东西时,奥,奥古斯丁回答说:“但我认为有一种‘教’是通过‘唤醒’(commemorationem)进行的,而且是非常重大的一种。正如在我们的讨论中事情本身将要表明的。但是,如果你并不认为当我们回忆时我们是在学习,也不认为在提醒的人也就是在‘教’,我现在不会反对你,我提出两个说话的理由:是为了教或是为了提醒。”(l.1.20-25)表面上,奥古斯丁对阿德奥达图斯的回答似乎不能解消后者的疑虑,而是带来了更多的问题。究竟“教”与“提醒”之间有什么关系呢?“提醒”到底是一种“教”,还是一种和“教”并列的说话活动呢?奥古斯丁此时对阿德奥达图斯所做的判断(“如果你并不认为当我们回忆时我们是在学习,也不认为在提醒的人也就是在‘教’”)表明,“教”和”提醒”之间关系的含糊,与我们尚不能清楚地区分“教”与“学”的实质有关。换句话说.能够清楚地“看到”教与学的差别,也会理解:“提醒”就是“教”,从而使说话的两个理由重新变成一个。对“教”的进一步澄清是《 论教师》 中的“符号的游戏”的一个重要目的。在这一过程中,“教”与“提醒”的关系逐渐揭示了奥古斯丁式“教诲”的实质。根据奥古斯丁的论述,当我们和人说话时,同时发生了两个过程:“声音触及我们的耳朵从而我们能够感受,而它被付诸记忆从而我们能够知道”(5。12。48—9)。“知道”不同于“感受”,因为“知道”通过记忆与“事情本身”联系在了一起。这里的两个过程涉及了 “词语”(verbum)与“名字”(nomen)的区分。“词语”是指声音对耳朵的触及,而“名字”则指示“心智的回忆”( animi commemoratlonem)。“名字”总是“事情的名字”。囚此,说话之所以是一种教诲,就在于“词语”作为“名字”27指向了“事情本身”。但“符号”永远只是符号,而非“事情本身”,说话作为教育,永远只是“唤醒”我们对于事情本身的记忆,而不是“事情本身”。奥古斯丁对符号与事情关系的讨论清楚地表明,当我们理解符号的时候,我们自然地把“它”理解为对“事情”的指称,而不是“声音”本身:“听到符号,注意力针对的是被指称的事情”( auditis signis ad res significatas feratur intention,8.24.150)。因此,在“说话”的两个过程中,我们自然地从直接感受到的东西(sensibilia), 指向了不能直接感觉,但却可以理解的东西(intellegibilia)。我们能够知道任何事情,正是因为我们从来不把感觉的东西只当作感觉的东西来看待,而是让它们把我们带向我们要理解的东西。而且,任何对符号的理解,必然因为我们知道它们是事情的符号,从而对符号的知识,引向努力知道事情本身的爱(De Trinitate,11.1.2)。从人的习俗建立的语言制度,迈向(自然,或更准确地说,神)“给定”的事情(De Doctrina Christiana, 2.25.38-27.41)。因此,这种符号作为符号的双重意涵,不仅仅在知识的意义上必然指向事情本身,而且它还同时推动我们的欲望去知道这是什么东西的符号。奥古斯丁的符号理论,揭示了他后来称为“爱的知识”(amata notitia, De Trinitate, 9.10.15)的根本特性:一个东西我们越是知道,但又没有充分知道,我们的心灵就越是想要知道剩下的东西(Quo igitur amplius notum est, sed non plene notum est, eo cupit animus de illo nosse quod reliquum est. De Trinitate, 11.1.2)。符号教育对人的培养,不只是让人拥有对某些东西的知识,更重要的是,在他的身上培植因为这些符号知识而“想要”(cupit)对事情本身知道更多的“欲求”。培养从“人的习俗”指向“事情本身”的渴望。教育的礼物,首先不是知识,而是对知识的爱,对自身无知的认识。符号知识的实质是对人的残缺的理解。陌生人在回到自己的祖国之前,他注定不能享有事情本身的幸福,而只能生活在符号知识构成的“暴风骤雨般的社会”中,靠云降的雨水来滋润。所以,奥古斯丁在《论教师》第二部分的讨论得出了一个重要的结论:对“被指称的事情”的知识高于事情的符号(9.28.114)。这个结论,在某种意义上,揭示了“教诲”的两面性。一方面,没有任何“教”能够脱离“符号”,在这个意义上,“教育”永远无法摆脱“符号的游戏”蕴含的各种根本限制。正如“符号”永远不能变成“事情本身”一样,作为“教”的“教育”只是通向“幸福生活”的一种准备。“教诲”永远不能成为“直截了当”的,因为它不是“热与光”本身。但另一方面,“符号的游戏”能够发挥作用,而不仅仅是一种孩子气的“娱乐”,是因为符号自然地指向符号之外,指向超出符号的“事情本身”。而且只有当我们真正知道“事情本身”,我们才真正学会了那些符号,而不是相反。(10.33)。正是在这个意义上,奥古斯丁才说“教之胜过说的程度犹如说胜过词语。因此,教诲远远胜过词语”(9.26.59-61)。“教诲”或者说“教条”(Doctrina),并非“符号游戏”所记住的“词语”的汇编,而是对“事情本身”的提示(admonitio)。在这个意义上,最伟大的“教条”,就是那些最能体现“教诲”特征的“符号”,不是死的词语,而是唤醒记忆,带来困惑,甚至催生痛苦的“动作”,一种苏格拉底式的“电击”。面对“符号的游戏”,往往存在两种表面上截然相反的危险。一种危险是误把“教条”的“词语”当作是“事情本身”,将教育仅仅当作这种“词语”的传授,这种危险通常被称为“教条主义”;而另一种危险则认为任何教诲都注定无法到达“事情本身”,因此所有的教育努力不过是在“符号”内部的游戏,教育唯一的希望也只不过是要清楚对“词语”的迷信。但因为“词语”除了自身的游戏没有任何可以折返的东西,破除“词语”的游戏最终不过导致一种对“游戏”本身的迷恋,这种危险通常被称为“怀疑主义”。从奥古斯丁的角度来看,其实这两种危险根源于同样一个错误,它们不仅错误地理解了“教诲”的性质,更致命的是,它们都误以为“教诲”本身就是“教育”的全部,而忘了对于教育来说,“学”才是更根本的目标。不能从教诲的符号游戏转向事情本身的知识,在奥古斯丁看来,暴露了人性根深蒂固的软弱。而“教育”与“骄傲”之间如此密切的关系,正是这种弱点的体现:人想要在符号的知识方面显得更博学一些(doctiores videri volunt), 而符号的知识又很难避免自满(De Dotrina Christiana, 2.13.20),因为,符号正是骄傲的产物(De Genesi contra Manichaeos, 2.5.6)。所以,任何教育,永远也摆脱不了骄傲,即使是对谦卑的教导,也可以带来虚荣(参见 Confessiones, 10.38.63)。在这个意义上,奥古斯丁在自由教育的“疯狂”与“欺骗”中发现人性根源,正是陌生人的“自然”处境。然而,恰恰是这种基于人的自然的自由教育,提示人们,在符号之外仍然有某种东西,它是符号成为符号的根基,正如对在此世无法到达的祖国的爱是陌生人成为陌生人的根基一样。然而,如何从符号到达符号指向的真理呢?难道这不正是古典自由教育的目的吗?四、学的“光”《 论教师》的最后一部分是对“学”的讨论,这部分讨论的核心是一个与第一部分的命题几乎针锋相对的命题:“没有什么事情是通过它的符号学到的”(nihil……quod per sua signa discatur.10.33.115)如果我们认真考虑奥古斯丁在第一部分讨论的问题,我们就会发现,“教”的困境现在变成了“学”的困境:“当一个符号传授给我时,如果它发现我对这个符号所指的事情无知的话.它不能教给我任何东西,但如果我不是无知的,我又能通过符号学会什么东西呢?”( 1 0.33.115—7 )在《论教师》中,“学”的困境实际上是唤醒式的教育始终面临的问题。如果教育只是唤醒,那么任何在教育过程中“学”到的东西,必然以某种方式已经在那里了。学习不是意见“传授”或“灌输”中的“得到”,而是“自得”。因此,在某种意义上,学习,以及与学习有关的知识问题,最终必定超越感官的知觉和意见的传递,而指向某种真理的自我呈现。但这里,学习面临着双重困境,如果要学的东西已经在那里, 为什么我们还要接受教育,通过教育来寻找呢?而如果我们要去找的话,我们又如何知道我们已经找到了我们所要的东西呢?难道真理的探寻不是必定要回到意见,或者说,有关事情的判断知识吗?柏拉图对这个极为困难的问题的“回答”就是所谓“回忆”说,以及与此相伴随的灵魂不朽和形的理论。柏拉图处理这一问题的思路,通过普罗提诺等所谓柏拉图的解释者,对奥古斯丁的早期作品产生了非常大的影响,这一点自Pierre Courcelle 的经典研究28 以来,已经是奥古斯丁学界的共识。但究竞奥古斯丁的思想是已经基督教化了的柏拉图(Endre Ivanka),或者“在基督教中真正完成的柏拉图主义”(Goulven Madec),还是相反,不过是“受了洗的古典思想”(John Rist),抑或新约精神与柏拉图思想传统的某种失败的综合,一种直至宗教改革才被路德所纠正的错误(Anders Nygren),甚至像Prosper Alfaric在1918年所说的,青年奥古斯丁的所谓“皈依”, 与其说是皈依了基督教,不如说是皈依了新柏拉图主义;以至于在奥古斯丁那里,很难说基督教在理智内容有多少超出新柏拉图主义的地方(Stephen Menn)。奥古斯丁与古典思想的关系,不仅是近一百年来奥古斯丁研究争论最激烈的问题,或许也是意义最重大的问题,是理解现代思想与其古典传统之间关系的关健环节。《论教师》这部早期对话,通过奥古斯丁对古典自由教育传统的检讨,给我们提供了进入这一问题的入手点。根据奥古斯丁,词语之所以能够促使我们学到东西,就在于词语具有力量唤醒我们去“看”事情本身。只有“看”才是学习(“除非他自已看到说的东西,他才是在学习,而这时他不是从词语中学习,而是从事情本身和感知中学习”。 12.39.14-5)。“所以,从词语那里,我们只能学会词语,或者更恰当地说,只能学会词语的声响和噪音”, “只有对事情本身的知识才能真正成全词语的知识”(rebus ergo cognitis verborum quoque cognitio perficitur. 11.36.8-9)。但在根本上,词语仍然只是“唤醒”,而非“学习”: “如果我们知道,那么它是提醒而非学习;而如果我们不知道,它就甚至不是提醒(Commemorari),虽然也许我们会被提示去进行探究(ad quaerendum admoneri)”(11.36.16-8)外面的不过在提示,只有里面的才能教导”( foris admonet, intus docet. De Librio Arbitrio,11.14.38),29奥古斯丁的这句话,精炼地指出了自由教育的意义,那就是“唤醒”或者“提示”:“那些受过良好自由教育的博学之士(qui bene disciplinis liberalibus eruditi)就是这样,在学习中,他们让那些无疑因遗忘而掩埋在自身之中的东西(in se oblivione)重见天日,或者说,他们以某种方式重新挖掘了它们;而且,尽管真理的光芒已经在这些自由技艺中闪烁,直至他们最终完满地直观到(intueantur)真理的整个面容(totam faciem veritatis),他们绝不会满足,也不会就此止步”(Soliloquia,2.20.35)。《独白》中的这段话值得我们仔细考察。因为,正是在“理性”所说的这段话中,奥古斯丁与柏拉图(及其追随者)的联系和断裂,才以非常明晰的方式展现出来。这段话的前半句,精确概括了基于“回忆”的自由教育的基本观点:自由教育指向的真理,不是由任何别人“传递”给自己的意见,也不是从外面“拿到”的感知,而是早已在自己那里(in se)只不过因为自己的遗忘(oblivione), 才被掩埋起来,无法看见。真理从来没有离开我们,我们也从来没有彻底遗忘真理,以至于即使当我们看到,也不知道。我们既非彻底遗忘(omni modo……oblivio 或validissima oblivione, Soliloquia,2.19.34),也非完全记住,而是处于记忆和遗忘的中间状态。因此,我们需要某种柏拉图所谓的“灵魂的转向”(《理想国》,518c),听从“理性”的呼喊:“背向你自己的昏暗,返回你自身”(Avertere ab umbra tua, revetere in te, Soliloquia, 2.19.33;柏拉图笔下的苏格拉底称为“从黑暗转向光”)。自由教育的意义,在奥古斯丁的笔下,就在于将人从对真理的遗忘中唤醒,重新返回自身,面向真理。然而尽管真理的“光芒”已经在自由教育中闪现,自由教育却并非真理自身的光,不过像在镜中的反射一样,我们看到的最多不过是真理的背面,而在我们最终面对面看到真理之前,我们的“学”不应该止步于真理的反光。对遗忘的克服,将我们带向对真理的回忆,而只有通过对真理的回忆,我们才能面对真理的光。奥古斯丁似乎自然地从柏拉图的“回忆”过渡到了“真理的光”(lux veritatis)或“作为光照的真理”(veritas lucens)。然而,日后奥古斯丁在《修正》中明确反对的正是这一段(1.4.4)。在他看来,美诺的奴隶之所以能被苏格拉底“唤醒”,知道了他从未被教过的几何知识,并非因为他“此(生)前”已经知道或者说学过这些东西,30而是因为他借以看见不变真理的“永恒理性之光”(lumen rationis aeternae)此时此刻就呈现在他那里(peaesens)。人心的构造,就在于它能够在一种与有形的光不同,自成一类的光中(in quadam luce sui generic incorporea)看到真理(De Trinitate,12. 15.24)。正如《论教师》所指出的,我们用来“理解”(intellegimus)“词语”的“事情本身的知识”来自于“内在于我们心智自身中主导性的真理”(intus ipsi menti praesidentem……veritatem,11.38.45)。这个真理,也就是“真正的教师” ,是“基督”(参见De Beata Vita,3.34;Soliloquia, 1.1.2)。这也正是这篇对话被称为《论教师》 的原因。换句话说,让我们能够看到真理的,是“内在的真理之光”(interiore luce veritatis, 12.40.31)。凭借这光,所谓“内在的人”被照亮,从向能安享幸福。不过,尽管被照亮的东西或许也可以称为“(光)亮的”,但只有照亮“内在人”的光,才是真的光(In Johannis evangelium tractatus,2.6,参见De Genesi ad Litteram,12.31.59)。与真的光相比,自由教育只是灯,或者烛火。不过,最初将“光照”与真理联系在一起的正是柏拉图。在著名的“第七封信”中,柏拉图告诫我们,不要轻信那些宣称教授所谓柏拉图学说的哲学书,因为哲学与其他“学问”不同,他从来不是可以言说的,而是来自围绕事情本身(求知的人)进行的许多交往,然后突然间,它就像火花溅起的光,闪现在灵魂中,靠它自己来教养自己(341c-d) 31 但正是在这里,我们遇到了理解奥古斯丁思想的关键:“内在的真理之光”,对于成熟的奥古斯丁来说,是否能“靠它自己来教养自己”呢?让我们能够看见真理的真理,作为光的真理,奥古斯丁祈祷时称为“ 理智之光的父,我们的唤醒和光照的父(pater intellegibilis lucis, pater evigilationis atque illuminationis nostrae, Soliloquia, 1.1.2), 是否也像柏拉图及其后继者认为的那样,来自我们自己呢? 32基督成为内在的教师,已经向我们提示了奥古斯丁思想的方向。奥古斯丁的“光照”必须摆脱柏拉图的“回忆”前提,自由教育的目标不再是对(不朽)灵魂的照看,而是对陌生自我现在的的专注。在这个意义上,奥古斯丁的“记忆”与其说是对过去的追忆,不如说是将散布在现在的那些破碎的自我碎片重新“收集”起来。对现在的记忆,就是回忆自己(Meminerit sui, De Trinitate, 14.11.14),借此,让自己遭遇自己(mihi et ipse occurro, Confessiones,10.8.14)让自己的心智呈现在自己面前(sibi praesto est, De Trnitate, 14.4.7,14.11.14)。对于奥古斯丁来说,这是“思”最根本的含义(Confessiones,10.11.18)。33 正是在这里,自我需要一个与所有教师都不同的新教师。在柏拉图那里,自由教育中的人文学习是兼具记忆与遗忘两种相反功效的“药”,其最终的目标指向对真理的回忆;而在奥古斯丁这里,自由教育在从词语的符号到达记忆时,并没有就此止步,而不过开始了一段觐见“真正的教师”的新旅程。在这个意义上,奥古斯丁笔下的自由教育,不仅不是目的,更准确地说,甚至并非通往目的的大路,而不过是将我们带向大路的小道,而且是经常容易令人迷失的岔路。34然而这里,我们不是再次回到了教育问题的开端吗?只不过世俗的教师变成了进入这个世界,但却不被这个世界接纳的新“教师”。在什么意义上,奥古斯丁称“基督”为教师时,这是内在于我们的教师,而且只有当我们能够识别这个内在的“教师”,我们才能被称为“在内在的意义上士真理的学生" (intus est discipulus veritatis, 13.41.5)呢? 奥古斯丁的《论教师》在讨论“学”的问题时,对话变成了独白。但这种“独白”,真的是自我和自我的对话吗?难道柏拉图不己经把“思”(dianoia)看作是“灵魂内自己与自己的无声对话”(《智者篇》,263e)吗? 奥古斯丁的全部努力难道不是再次回到了柏拉图的起点吗?五、内在人:没有本性的陌生人在《论教师》的教育中“内在人”(homo interior)是一个关键的意象。没有内在人,我们就不可能“在内在的意义上是真理的学生”。奥古斯丁称“内在人”为“理性灵魂的隐秘部分”(ipsis rationalis animae secretis, 1.2.17) , 是在“心智的内室”(mentis penetralia, 1.2.13),或“在心智的圣庙心灵的寝室中”(in templo mentis et in cubilibus cordis, 1.2.55)。只有通过“内在人”, 奥古斯丁的“教育”才能从“符号的游戏”最终指向“事情本身”。如果说,柏拉图的对话时灵魂相对于城邦的上升和下降的话,那么在奥古斯这里,从低到高的上升意味着从外在的人迈向内在的人(ab inferioribus ad superiora ascendentes, vel ab exterioribus ad interiora ingredients, De trinitate,14.3.5),而内在的就是高的(interiora ac superiora. De trinitate, 12.10.15)然而,所谓“内在人”的学说,其源头正是柏拉图。在讨论僭主问题的《理想国》第9卷中,苏格拉底第一次提到了“人里面的人”这个会所发(589a)。在苏格拉底用言语塑造的一个灵魂“形象”中,“里面的人”(理智),必须与“狮子”(意气)结盟,对抗最大的“多头怪兽”(欲望)。这个“形象”揭示了有关正义的教育的一个重要意图:赞美正义的人借助快乐、名声和好处来战胜危险的欲望。在柏拉图之后,和柏拉图作品中许多主题的命运一样,“人里面的人”逐渐变成一个“精神性”的概念,35 成为人的内在生活的代表。很可能是通过所谓“新柏拉图主义”或诺斯替派,保罗接过了这个希腊概念,将它纳入到自己的神学中,成为其中一个非常重要的环节。36保罗在写给哥林多教会的信中说,传上帝的人有宝贝放在瓦器中,因为“那说光从黑暗中出来的神,已经让光照在我们心里,叫我们知道神的荣耀现在基督的面上”(《哥林多后书》4.6)。这个“宝贝”,心中的“光照”,对上帝荣耀的“知识”(gnosis), 不是出于我们自己,而是上帝的力(dynamis,4.7)。有了上帝给的“光照”,“我们外面的人虽然毁坏,但我们里面的人却日日更新”(4.16)37尽管人们经常将保罗的“内在人“和柏拉图“人里面的人”联系在一起,38 但一个初步的考察至少提示我们注意几点非常重要的差异。首先,值得指出的是,保罗在“内在人”和“外在人”之间所做的区分,并不等于柏拉图在《理想国》中在“灵魂”和“身体”(人外面的那个壳,588e)之间所做的古典区分。39 相反,在保罗这里,“内在人”与“外在人”的冲突恰恰是在我们身体上生与死,灵与肉的对抗,肉体同样可以是属灵的。40其次,在柏拉图的笔下,“人里面的人”,尽管与人里面的“多头怪兽”相比,不是最大的,但正如所有德性都可以看做是一种“力”(429b,430b,433b,443b), 知识或意见同样可以成为我们自己的力(447b)。虽然,最终在洞穴神话中,“善的形”也赋予看见的人以力(508e),但到达善这个光源的过程,并不像在保罗那里,完全取决于神。在柏拉图的言语城邦里,“人里面的人”与力结合的真正困难(这也是其必须与“狮子”结盟的原因)在于政治的(权)力与知识的力在本性上的内在差异(参见473d),而不是人的无力与上帝的大能之间无限的距离。正是在这里,保罗决定性地改造了来自柏拉图著作中的“内在人”主题。在柏拉图那里,“人里面的人”涉及的是城邦的政治教育,以及在这种教育中人更高的可能性;而在保罗这里,这个问题变成了传教过程中人无法摆脱的此世困境,人身上新与旧的挣扎,生与死的交战。(参见《罗马书》7.22)。正是在保罗的直接影响下,奥古斯丁将城郑的政治“心理学”问题彻底转变为自我灵魂的临床“心理学”(例如De Diversis Quaestionibus 83.51),并在此基础上,赋予自由教育以新的意义。在奥古斯丁笔下,人是一个巨大的深渊(grande profundum,Confessiones, 4.14.22)。41 而人能否知道自己,仅靠自由教育的灵魂转向并不够,因为人并不知道他自己,即使人里面的灵也是如此,只有上帝才真正知道“我”(10.5.7)。对于“认识你自己”这条希腊箴言,奥古斯丁的回答初看上去与古典的理解没什么差别(De Trinitate, 10.5.7):42人心“应该思考它自己,按照它的本性活着,也就是说,它应该按照它的本性(在秩序中)得到安置,在它应该服从的下面,在他应该主宰的上面”。但人心的真正处境却是在“欲望”的作用下忘了自己(oblita)。然而,这种自我遗忘却仿佛像是古典的自我提升:“当它在神—更卓越的自然—那里看到了某些内在的美,它本应该停留在那儿,安享它们,但它却想要自已也要如此,不是凭借他来像他,反而凭借自己是他所是(non ex illo similis illius,sed ex se ipsa esse quod ille est);这样,它就背离了他,慢慢下滑,自己以为自已变得越来越多,而实际上,却变得越来越少”。换句话说,“认识你自已”,在奥古斯丁这里,并非简单地回到自我,更不是单纯凭借自已灵魂或理智上升,“尽人的本性之可能成就不朽”。43这样的努力,在奥古斯丁看来,之所以没有使自己上升,从而成全越来越多的人性.反而下滑的越来越少,就在于上帝比我更内在。这里,奥古斯丁比保罗又进了一步,不仅内在人的日日更新需要借助上帝的力,而且上帝在某种意义上是内在人的根基:上帝比我最内在的部分更内在(interior intimo meo, Confessiones,3.6.11)。人要成就自己的本性,恰恰不是和自己在一起,而是和上帝在一起。因为“上帝在里面,而我却在外面”(intus eras et ego foris),“你(指上帝)和我在一起,而我却没有和你在一起”(mecum eras,et tecum non eram, 10.27.38)。所以,人要成就的,不是在任何人的自然给定的可能中凭借己力接近神,分享神,甚至在某种意义接纳不朽,从而成为真正的自我。因为,何谓我的自然?它不过是变化多端,形形色色、完全不可量度的生活”(varia, multimoda vita et inmensa vehementer, l0.17.26)。换句话说,人的自然在根本上处于破碎散乱的状态,44 “我”根本无法把握我自己的全部或者说整体(nec ego ipse capio totum,10.8.15)。 这样,遵循古典理想,按照自然生活,不仅不能尽心成性,而日且会将人带向彻底的贫乏(2.l0.l8)。45 异教哲学家最终因为骄傲而必然失败。所以,人心的巨大深渊,在上帝的眼中一清二楚(l0.1.2 ),而我却无从入手,要认识自我,按照我的本性生活,就必须了解我的“自然”。柏拉图一派书籍可以提示奥古斯丁返回自我(7.10. 16),但“自我”却并非我的“家”。听从保罗的教诲,奥古斯丁发现,要了解我的“自然”,建立“自然”的“整体”, 唯一的途径是努力“回到”超自然的上帝,努力以其全体和上帝结合在一起(inhaesero tibi ex omni me, l0.28.39)。悖谬地说,只有通过上帝的超自然,人的自然才能得到真正充分的呈现;而这种人的自然的充分呈现,并非人的本性的自我成全,在人性容许的最高可能性中的“自足”, 而是自我内在的陌生性更深的显现。因此,在最终的幸福到来之前,人只不过是一个在旅途中的陌生人(Enarrationes in Psalmos,72.34,V.28),似乎因偶然的际遇串联在一起的一堆生活碎片,除上帝之外(Confessiones, 10.40.65 ),没有任何自然的量度能够将人的历史结合成一个整全的秩序。而教育的目的就是让我们能够回到造就我们本性的真正源头,作为自由教育方向的“内在人”不过是一座桥梁,桥梁的尽头不是在自然秩序中具有内在位置的自然自我,而是上帝。46正是基于“内在人”与人的自然关系的脱节,我们才能理解《论教师》这部对话在结构和风格上的特征。和奥古斯丁的许多其他对话一样,这部对话也自然地从“对话”变成了“独白”。在柏拉图的对话中,对话是构成城邦的不同层次的意见的哲学考察,对话的戏剧性建立在城邦不同层次意见之间的必然冲突中,建立在对意见的哲学考察中意见与这种“考察”自然的对立上。但在奥古斯丁的对话中,对话者并非城邦中的不同声音,而是出现在一个人自身中的不同声音。47 在严格意义上,“对话”几乎与“独白“难以区分,或者这种对话必须以“独白”的方式,以排斥其他人的方式进行,意见的喧嚣和情绪的撕扯,反而妨碍“我”回到“自身”,以平静和合适的方式来探寻“自我”的真理:“在孤独中指明那些日常生活经历所造成的意见的烙印(De Ordine,1.1.3);而“这些事情要求纯粹的孤独”(Solitudinem meram, Soliloquia,1.1.1,特别参见2.7.14对苏格拉底式“问答”的批评)。因此,在奥古斯丁这里,人自身而非城邦,才是对话真正发生的场所;对话不是在对城邦意见的考察中哲学在光与昏暗之间穿梭,而是构成一个人的不同声音之间的冲突;不是政治的悲剧,而是信仰的喜剧。对话的焦点是人的意志与软弱,理性与暗昧,自由与受缚。并最终,是作为陌生人的自我,其身上固有的“自然”和“去自然”的力量之间深刻的挣扎与对抗。在某种意义上,奥古斯丁的对话最后必然进入到人心在孤独中的“内在思考与言说”(interius cogitando et loquendo, Confessiones,9.10.24)。然而,这种必须通过“我”返回“自身”,从而发生在“自我”身上的“对话”,却并非柏拉图式的灵魂与自身自问自答的对话,48 而是从自我指向了上帝。希波的主教,最终找到了“告白”(confessio)这种比对话更贴切的文体形式,绝非偶然。49 “告白”,并非教导(5.1.1),它是忏悔(confessio peccatti)和赞美(confessio laudis), 也就是对“我”的自然困境的自省和对真正根基的探寻,从而在这个意义上,是陌生人面对自己的“自然”与“上帝”的“对话”,是在独白深处的对话。50 只有在一个孤独个体的这种“告白”式的“对话”的基础上,一个新的社会才是可能的(10.43.70)。如果说古典自由教育的内在宗旨,是通过教育成全人的本性,尽善尽美地实现人的自然,那么奥古斯丁的教育,恰恰通过人向自身的折返,在最大限度上克服了人的本性。而没有自然本性的陌生人,正是整个现代教育不得不而对的根本困境。苏格拉底决定性地影响这个概念后来的发展,赋予这个观念以哲学乃至政治意涵(参考柏拉图的《阿尔希比亚德上篇》,特别是124b,《斐利布斯篇》19c,《查米迪斯篇》164d—165b,《普罗泰格拉篇》343b,《法篇》923a等和色诺芬的《居鲁士的教育》7.2.20—25)。在柏拉图和色诺芬的苏格拉底看来,所谓“认识你自己”,首先就在于知道自己无知的,也就是知道自己的所谓知识实际上不过是意见而已。在这个意义上,“认识你自己”意味着对城邦中各种“意见”的考察。因此,“认识你自己”不是孤独的“自省”,或者“漫步遐思”, 而是“考察自己和他人”(《 苏格拉底的申辩》28e,特别参见阿里斯托芬《云》842)。而且更重要的是,苏格拉底眼中的“认识你自己”绝非简单的“非政治”态度,相反,是一种更成熟的政治生活的前提:“更努力地关注你自己;l而且不要不关心城邦,如果你有能力因为你的缘故使它变得更好些”(色诺芬,《回忆苏格拉底》,Ⅲ.ⅶ.8—9,参见Ⅳ.ⅱ.23-30)。将“自我照看”,或者更准确地说,“照看自己的灵魂”作为“认识自己”的主要方式,在苏格拉底这里,固然构成了对城邦的政治生活的深刻挑战,但这种挑战本身却并不是非政治式的逃避或隐遁,而蕴含对城邦政治的意义、基础和限度的严肃思考。苏格拉底与智者的政治教育的一个重要不同,就在于苏格拉底的“自我照看”首先关注的乃是那些和他最亲近的雅典城邦的人(《苏格拉底的申辩》,30a) 。也就是说,任何对自我的认识,首先从人自然降生、受教育和生活的现实城邦开始。自我照看是对处于自然关系中的人的灵魂的“关注”。而对自我灵魂的认识,正如《理理国》中讨论正义问题的“方法”所揭示,不得不从对城邦的认识开始(368d以下),并最终触及城邦政体及相应的灵魂类型的考察。而这种“自我照看”,最终涉及的也不只是私人的好,同样还有公共的好(《苏格拉底的申辩》,30b)。将“认识你自己”理解为认识自己身上接近神性的部分,很可能是在希腊化时期(城邦政治的瓦解阶段)形成的,比较晚出的看法。而对柏拉图作品的解释无疑在这一新观念的发展中扮演了非常重要的角色。不过,这一新的看法几乎彻底颠倒了这条箴言的源初意涵:这条最初厘定人与神的根本分别的疆界,竟变成了引导人寻找自己与神共通之处的上升阶梯(Hans Dieter Betz,Hellenismus und Urchristentum,Tubingen,1990,pp.92—111;比较Plutarch,De Eapud Delphos,394C和Cicero,Tusculanae disputations,Ⅰ.52,Ⅴ.70)在这方面。福柯和查尔斯.泰勒都没有充分重视古典“自我照看”观念的政治意涵。而泰勒把柏拉图的所谓“自我”学说看作是奥古斯丁以“彻底反身性“(radical reflexivity)为代表的“内在性”(inwardness)观念的“史前史”,对柏拉图和奥古斯丁的理解均流于肤浅,从而完全不能把握古典世界与现代社会之间的根本差别。米尔班克虽然意识到了泰勒对西方精神史考察的弱点,但他认为,奥古斯丁使用“内在性”的词汇根本不是深化了柏拉图式的内在性,而毋宁说是对后者的颠倒,这不仅误解了柏拉图(正如泰勒自己承认的,柏拉图并不使用“内在”“外在”的语汇来描述泰勒式的“内在性”),更重要的是,并没有理解奥古斯丁的“社会理论”是在建立“新人”,即解构了人的自然关系的陌生人的基础上,而“内在人“的重构恰恰是这种“陌生人”教育的关键。晚近Wavne Hankey等人捍卫泰勒立场的反批评尽管触及了米尔班克等所谓“激进正统派”(Radical Orthodoxy)以及整个“后现代神学”某些弱点,但并没有对我们理解奥古斯丁和现代性提供更多的帮助。争论的双方似乎都忽视了现代社会构成的一个关键点:即作为现代社会基础的人的“社会性”,不是自然铁序在人的灵魂中的体现甚至实现,而人的灵魂丧失自然根基的结果。古典世界为自然寻求根基的努力,最终导致了自然秩序的瓦解,只有在这个意义上,奥古斯丁才既是柏拉图的继承人,也是他的颠覆者。【注释】  [1] En genera ne substituez jamais le signe a la chose que quand il vous est impossible de la montrer. Car le signe absorbe l’ attention de l’ enfant, et lui fait oublier la chose representee.( J.J.Rousseau, Emile, Livre Ⅲ, O.C.Ⅲ.131).[2] Augustine, Against the Academicians and the Teacher. Peter King tr.(Hackett, 1995). 拉丁原文参考 Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina,Vol.29(ed.K.D.Daur,1970). 此书的有关情况,参见G.Madec为发文译本撰写的导言(BA 6.3rd edition. 1976)[3] 不过,这部对话在中世纪影响非常大,尤其参见Thomas Aquinas, quaestiones disputatatae de veritate. Qu.Ⅺ;Bonaventure.“Christ Our One Teacher”. In Robert Pasnau.ed.The Cambridge Translation of Medieval Philosophical Texts. Cambridge,2002, Vol.3.79-92。参见Madec上引文31-38页;Josef Owens,“Faith,Ideas,Illumination, and Experience”.in The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy, Cambridge,1982,140-159.[4] 《论教师》是《修正》一书中奥古斯丁唯一没有加以修正的著作,参见Douglas Kries为Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B.Eerdmans,1999)撰写的词条(De Magistro,pp.519-520)[5] Adeodatus 这个名字的意思是“神的礼物或神的恩赐”。他和奥古斯丁的母亲莫妮卡一起出现在奥古斯丁早期另一部重要的对话《论幸福生活》中(De Beata Vita,1.6)。莫妮卡在那部对话中的角色有些类似《论教师》中的阿德奥达图斯,不过作用更积极些(参见De Beata Vita,2.10,1,27)。[6] 借用《约翰一书》的说法(1 John, 2.16),奥古斯丁也称之为“眼的欲求”(concupiscentia oculorum, Confessiones,10.35.54)。事实上,《忏悔录》第10卷第35章可以看作是对亚里士多德《形而上学》开篇有关所有人都想要知道的本性(第一卷第一章)的一个批评。有关奥古斯丁思想中“好奇”的重要意义,特别值得注意的是海德格尔的著名讨论(《存在与时间》,第36节)。不过,或许与海德格尔的论述有些不同,不是“好奇”,而是对“好奇”这种“诱惑”的克服(continentia), 才在更根本意义上,构成了“陌生人”(Aufenthaltslosigkeit… uberall und nirgends, S.173)的前提。而在“陌生人”对“好奇”的克服背后,孕育了非常根本的变化:对于人的世界来说,“自然”的知识不再涉及真正的奥秘。由此,古代世界在“自然”知识与人的幸福之间建立的内在关联逐渐趋于瓦解。因此,这个意义上,奥古斯丁对“好奇”的批判恰恰为现代人“重新”肯定“好奇”扫清了道路。有关这个问题,参见Hans Blumenberg, The legitimacy of the Modern Age, MIT Press,1985, pp.308ff;“Light as a Metaphor for Truth”, in D.M.Levin ed. Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision, pp.34-36。“好奇”在《论教师》中只出现过一次,后学出于偶然,是和“愚蠢”联系在一起的(stulte curiosus, 14.45.3)[7] 奥古斯丁把这一过程描述为:“尽我可能,引导我的注意力,放在信的这一规矩上,然后尽你(即上帝)使我所能,探寻你,并渴望在理智上看到我已经信的”(Ad hanc regulam fidei dirigens intentionem meam. Quantum potui, quantum me posse fecisti, quaesivi te. Et desideravi intellectu videre quod credidi, De Trinitate, 15.28.51)。正是在这个意义上,《论教师》引用了《以赛亚书》(7.9)中“信以致知”的说法(11.37.32ff)。信仰尽管是有用的,但仍然不是最终的。这一点正是“奥古斯丁”与多少带有唯信倾向的莫妮卡的根本区别(参见Ragnar Holte, “Monica, the Philosopher”, Augustinus, Vol39,1994,293-316)。“信仰”与“理解”的关系,关系到奥古斯丁论教育的核心问题:“教”的用处与“学”的可能。[8] 维特根斯坦在《哲学研究》的开篇(几乎是以“断章取义”的方式)引用了这个段落,从而开始从一个彻底“社会”的角度对传统语言理论的哲学治疗。参见M.F.Burnyeat 于1987年在剑桥亚里士多德协会所做的就职演讲,“Wittgenstein and Augustine De Magistro”, The Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol.LⅪ,1-24。不过,这里更重要的问题,并非在多大程度上奥古斯丁预见甚至直接影响了维特根斯坦对符号的理解,而是这种符号理论在奥古斯丁有关自我和社会的思想中的位置。奥古斯丁有关符号或语言的理论必须联系他关心的根本问题才能获得充分的理解(参见G.Madec, Saint Augustin et la philosophie, Paris,1996,p.55)。而如果我们将奥古斯丁在《论基督教的教诲》中区别“符号”与“事情”的原则贯彻到底,那么除了上帝以外,一切东西在最终都只能看做是应该是使用的符号,而非安享幸福生活的事情本身(De Doctrina Chistiana,1.2.2-1.4.4,22.20-21)。这样,现代人置身的“世界”就必然是一个“抽象社会”,而彻底建立在“用”(uti)的基础上的维特根斯坦语言理论正式回应奥古斯丁这一洞察力的结果。[9] 奥古斯丁甚至认为,即使在学习一门外语(即希腊语)时,他也并不是被职业教师教诲的(non a docentibus, 1.14.23)[10] Werner Jaeger, Paideia: the Ideals of Grerk Culture, Oxford, 1945, Vol.1.chap.1.[11] 正如许多研究已经指出的,在普鲁塔克的《希腊罗马名人传》中,政治任务习性(ethos)的核心正是热爱荣誉(philotimia),喜好名声(philodoxia)和热衷统治(philoarchia)是绝大多数传主政治生活真正的推动力(例如Themistocles,18)。即使在斯巴达立法者莱库古强调“节制”的政治教育中,热爱荣誉也是不可缺少的环节(Lycurgus, 25.2)。[12] 奥古斯丁对“荣誉”在古代政治生活中的意义的检讨,参见De Civitate Dei, 5.13.[13] 奥古斯丁在《修正》(1.3.2)中批评了自己在《论秩序》对自由教育的这一强调。[14] 事实上,无论是否借助了Varro还是新柏拉图主义的著作,奥古斯丁的这部对话都在确立日后影响西方教育史一千多年的人文教育课程的基本架构方面占据了枢纽性的地位。参见 Henri Marrou, Saint Augustin et la fin de la culture antique, Paris, 1983, PartieⅡ; Ilsestraut Hadot, Arts liberaux et philosophie dans la pensee antique, Paris,2005,pp.101-136.[15] 参见亚里士多德《后分析篇》(2.13,97b16-21)论“灵魂伟大”(megalopsuchia)的两种方式,分别是以阿尔西比亚德和苏格拉底为代表。这两种“灵魂伟大“的一个共同特点就是追求“自足”(autarkes), 不愿意为考虑别人而生活(《尼各马可伦理学》,1125a1-13)。[16] 自由教育与奥古斯丁的“新”社会在精神上的内在冲突,鲜明地体现在奥古斯丁本人的经历中。在最初接触圣经时,仍然受古典精神支配的奥古斯丁认为,圣经的风格卑下,根本无法和西塞罗相比(Confessiones, 3.5.9, 对比他后来对圣经的看法,6.5.8)。事实上,《圣经》“初接触时卑下,越深入,越觉崇高,以致笼罩在神秘中”(Incessu humilem, successu excelsam, et velatam mysteriis)。正如我们后来将要看到的,这种难以把握的“内在深度”(interiora)正是现代自我的特征。有关圣经与现代世界的“风格”,参见奥尔巴赫的经典分析:Erich Auerbach, Mimesis, Princeton, 1953。特别是66页以下对奥古斯丁风格的分析。[17] Herri Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, New York, 1956, Chap.5.[18] 《论教师》中的阿德奥达图斯与《忏悔录》中的母亲莫妮卡,虽然没有受过正规教育,但却“学会”了真正的东西;而相反,奥古斯丁的父亲,推崇的是世俗意义上的自由教育,只关心他的儿子是否口舌便给,而不在乎他的心灵是否遭到了荒弃(Confessiones,2.3.5)。奥古斯丁的父亲和母亲,分别代表了两种教育理想,以及两种对幸福生活得不同理解。而希波的主教并不把自己看做属于“受过良好教育的人”(doctus, De Civitate Dei, 3.1.1)。[19] Henri Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, New York,1956, Chap.5.[20] 柏拉图,《理想国》518b-c, 《美诺篇》93b, 《优希德谟篇》287a。特别参见《泰阿泰德篇》(198b)的讨论,“灌输”的意象出现在《会饮篇》(175d-e)中。[21] 柏拉图,《泰阿泰德篇》,201a-b。[22] 参见《高尔吉亚篇》453d-e。对“教”与“学”一致性的迷信,在柏拉图笔下,似乎始终是智者的一个特点。参见《优希德谟篇》276a-277c, 特别是《美诺篇》70a, 96c。[23] 苏格拉底自己倒是曾经不无讽刺地说,我知道的这些不过都是那个聪明的普洛迪克的“回声”。见柏拉图《阿克西奥库斯篇》(Axiochus), 366c。[24] Plutarch, De Alexandri Magni Fortuna aut Virtute,328c[25] 在这个问题上,奥古斯丁深受柏拉图传统的影响。柏拉图的对话包含了对“教”的深刻怀疑。不过,正如我们会逐渐发现的,如果对比奥古斯丁的论述与柏拉图的对话(例如《泰阿泰德篇》149e-151d,《斐多篇》和《美诺篇》),我们会发现二者之间仍然存在着细微但非常重要的差别。奥古斯丁并没有直接读到柏拉图的作品,他大概是通过西塞罗了解到《美诺篇》中奴隶的故事(De Trinitate, 12.15.24)。参见Pierre Courcelle, Late Latin Writers and Their Greek Sources, Havard, 1969, 171。[26] 在《忏悔录》中,奥古斯丁对自由教育的态度,显然比他在早期著作《论音乐》中要严厉得多。但即使在《论音乐》这本带有浓厚“新柏拉图主义”色彩的书中,奥古斯丁也告诫那些全身心投入世俗人文教育的人,要提防其中包含的巨大错误,避免落入各种陷阱,知道哪里才是最安稳的幸福所在(De Musica, 6.1.1)[27] 奥古斯丁在二者之间建立的等价关系,在西方思想史中具有非常重要的意义。学者指出,奥古斯丁几乎是第一个真正通过“符号”来理解“语言”的人,这一转向在根本上削弱了古典语言理论的自然基础(即使试图从“符号”角度理解“语言”的亚里士多德,也仍然从自然相似的角度考虑符号与事情的关系。对比亚里士多德的《解释篇》16a和De Doctrina Christiana, 2.25.38)。但语言的“符号转向”,并非像米尔班克认为的那样,首先是“社会转向”,而正如我们在后面会看到的,是通过在“符号”与“事情”的区分基础上建立的“外在人”与“内在人”的关系,将人的所有社会关系重建在去自然的陌生人的基础上。参见Robert Markus, “Saint Augustine on Signs”, Phronesis 2(1957), 60-83; Umberto Eco, Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language, Bloomington, 1984, pp.33-42; John Milbank, The World Made Strange, Blackwell, 1997, pp.88-92。[28] Recherches sur les Confessions de saint Augustin, Paris,1950.[29] 在论教师的结尾,阿德奥达图斯最后的总结表明他清楚地把握了“提示”与“学习”的这一根本区别:“在你的词语的提示下,我学会了,词语不过就是提示人们去学…….”(didici admonitione verborum tuorum, nihil aliud verbis quam admoneri hominem ut discat. 13.16.34—5)30 这正是《斐多篇》中科贝从“学习作为回忆”推到“灵魂的前世”,甚至“灵魂不朽”的关键(72e-73a)。无论我们如何理解柏拉图有关“灵魂不朽”的讨论,这个问题都和“学”的问题有着根本的关联。科贝对这一理论的理解可能导致一个危险,似乎灵魂记住了自由教育所包含的全部技艺,而所谓“学”变成了对“教”的回忆。这样,美诺的奴隶与美诺这个博闻强记的“学者”的唯一区别不过是“前世”与“今生”而已。奥古斯丁曾一度有过类似的表述(De Quantitate Animae, 20.34)。者或许是他后来反对他所理解的柏拉图的“回忆说”的一个原因(Retractationes, 1.8.2)? 但值得注意的是,至少在有些地方,奥古斯丁似乎意识到,柏拉图的“回忆”并不指向“过去”,而是永恒(Epistulae, 7.2)[31] 奥古斯丁对“光照”思想的早期表述(例如Contra Academicos, 3.17.37), 在许多方面,正是以柏拉图的思想为前提,尤其是基于柏拉图的“回忆”说。[32] 根据普罗提诺的教诲,灵魂必须经过训练后获得新的习惯,返回自身,看到真正的美:而当灵魂洗去了所有的杂质,真正变得纯净的时候,“自己完全就成了真正的光”。这时,灵魂就完成了上升,不再需要任何向导了。在普罗提诺看来,想要看到神,首先必须像神一样(《九章集》1.6.9)。自从Paul Henry以来,学者一般认为,奥古斯丁读过普罗提诺的这篇论文(1.6,“论美”),所以,我们可以从中看出,在灵魂上升问题上,奥古斯丁与普罗提诺乃至整个古代传统之间的根本差异。参见Eugene Teselle, Augustine The Theologian, New York, 1970, pp.43ff;Peter King, “Augustine’s Encounter with Neoplatonism”, The Modern Schoolmen, Vol.82(2005).p.214。[33] 当然,奥古斯丁的作品仍然保留了许多对记忆的传统理解,但即使在这些地方,许多表述也和他重新界定记忆的努力分不开(尤见Confessiones,1.1.1: praesenti memoria praeteritos……)。正如吉尔松所指出的,在这里,“柏拉图有关过去的记忆让位于奥古斯丁有关现在的记忆”,见Etienne Gilson, Introduction a l’Etude de Saint Augustin, Paris, 1929, p.100。[34] 这大概是奥古斯丁有关“自由教育”的成熟立场。奥古斯丁最终认为,自由教育远远没有阅读和理解圣经重要。而正如他在《论基督教教诲》中指出的,前者的意义在很大程度上取决于能否和如何为后者服务。在这方面,Schaublin对《论基督教教诲》的研究多少矫正了H.Marrou和I.Hadot的偏颇,尽管我不能完全同意他矫枉过正的论述。参见Christoph Schaublin, “De doctrina Christiana:A Classic of Western Culture?”, in Duane Arnold and Pamela Bright ed. De doctrina Christiana: A Classic of Western Culture, Notre Dame, 1995,esp. p.53,55。[35] 在诺斯替派经书中,《理想国》的这一段落,脱离了全书的整体架构,独立成章,变成了一种没有任何政治色彩的,在道德上更趋严格(特别是对“欲望”的态度)的教诲。参见James Robinson ed. The Nag Hammadi Library in English, Haper & Row, 1977,Ⅵ.5, pp.290-291。[36] 我们这里忽略了柏拉图和保罗(以及中间的菲洛)字面上的细微差异。参见Theo.K.Heckl的博士论文:Der Innere Mensch: Die paulinische Verarbeitung eines platonicshcen Motivs. J.C.B.Mohr, 1993; Walter Burkert, “Towards Plato and Paul: the ‘Inner’ Human Being”, In Ancient and Modern Perspective on the Bible and Cuture: Essays in Honor of Hans Dieter Betz, ed. By Adela Yarbro Collins, Atlanta, 1998,80。[37] 参见Hans Dieter Betz 对这个问题的讨论:“The Concept of the ‘Inner Human Being’ in the Anthropology of Paul, New Testament Studies 46(2000), pp.317-341, 特别是第329-334页。[38] 例如James Adam在为《理想国》所做的经典注疏(Cambridge,1929)中,就在此处提及了保罗《罗马书》有关“内在人”的段落,而他引用的Geoge Herbert 的“高贵诗句”,和玄学派诗人的许多作品一样,是基督教精神与所谓“新柏拉图主义”的混合。而这种“混合”,无论对理解柏拉图,还是奥古斯丁,有时都不无危险。[39] 在教父时期,开始将“内在人”等同为灵魂或心智。这种做法本身显然有柏拉图传统,特别是所谓新柏拉图主义的影响。参见G.R.Evans, Getting It Wrong, Brill,1998, 第12页以下。[40] 参见Betz上引文327页以下。这个问题涉及了奥古斯丁后来拒绝柏拉图“回忆说”一个最重要的动机。但在奥古斯丁有关“内在人”的论述中,柏拉图传统的影响仍然非常强,特别是他倾向于像新柏拉图主义一样将“感官的外在之物”等同于“外在人”,参见Confessiones, 10.6.9, De Trinitate, 12.1.1, 不过参见De Civitate Dei 14.5对这一点的批评,在奥古斯丁这里,就“内在人”的问题而言,柏拉图传统,乃至整个古代思想的“弱点”,必须通过对“意志”问题的考察才能最终得以克服。[41] 因此,正如我们下面会看到的,柏拉图或许会认为,奥古斯丁迈向“内在人”的路程,既是从洞穴向太阳的上升,同时也不妨看作是外面向洞穴深处的下降。因为,对“内在人”的把握,需要“收集”那些甚至自己也无法进入的自我的碎片。[42] “认识你自己”,作为希腊思想的重要主题,最初具有浓厚的宗教意涵。在前苏格拉底文本中,这条箴言通常被用来告诫人们要认识到人不是神,必然会朽坏。换句话说,“认识你自己”就是要人克服“骄狂”(hybris), “不敬的孩子”。这个观念构成了希腊悲剧的核心动机,埃斯库罗斯的《被缚的普罗米修斯》(309)提供了一个绝佳的例子(参见Pierre Courcelle,Connais-toi toi-meme:de Socrate a Saint Bernard, Paris,1974,pp.12—13)。[43] 柏拉图,《蒂迈欧篇》90c; 参见亚里士多德,《尼各马可伦理学》,1177b27:“尽人之可能成就不朽”。[44] 这一主题贯穿了《忏悔录》全书(例如1.3.3,2.1.1), 在讨论所谓“时间”问题的第11卷达到了顶峰。[45] 这里对奥古斯丁的解释,受到Jean Luc Marion 教授的许多启发,参见他在芝加哥大学神学院任John Nuveen 宗教和神学教授职位的就职演讲。“Mihi magna quaestio factus sum: The Privilege of Unknowing”, The Journal of Religion,Vol.85(2005),特别是5-7页。Marion教授演讲的题目,“我成了我的大问题”(Confessiones 10.33.50, 4.4.9), 也是海德格尔解释奥古斯丁《忏悔录》第10卷的关键(参见Martin Heidegger, The Phenomenology of Religious Life, Bloomington, 2004, p.130,184),并构成了理解他自己的“此在”分析的决定性线索。有的学者甚至认为,海德格尔对此在的理解不过是用概念阐述了奥古斯丁的这句话(J.Crondin, “Heidegger und Augustin, Zur hermeneutischen Wahrheit”, E. Richter( Hrsg), Die Frage nach der Wahrheit, Frankfurt am Main, 1997, S.pp.166-168; Klaus Kienzler, “Augustinus und Heidegger: Confessiones Ⅹ”, in Frederich Van Fleteren ed. Martin Heidegger’s interpretations of Saint Augustine, Lewiston, 2005, pp.51-53)。 这一主题显然也深刻地影响了阿伦特对奥古斯丁的理解:它既是阿伦特博士论文《爱与奥古斯丁》分析的起点,也是他晚年《心灵的生活》“意志”一卷中讨论所谓“内在人的发现”问题的重要主题。参见 Hannah Arendt, Love and Saint Augustine, Chicago, 1996, pp.13,24-25; The Life of the Mind, Harvest Book, 1977, Vol.Ⅱ.p.53。[46] “……..如果我们的自然来自我们自己(natura nostra esset a nobis),我们自己实际上就应该能产生我们的智慧,而无需操心通过教诲,也就是说,不用从别处学,来把握这种智慧;而我们的爱,也就只要从我们自己出发,回到自身,就足以让我们生活幸福,而无须分享有别的善。但现在,正是因为我们的自然有了上帝作为造作者才能存在,所以,如果我们想要真正有智慧,无疑需要以他为师(doctorem), 而他为了让我们可能会幸福,慷慨地赐予我们以内在的甜蜜(De Civitate Dei,11.25)。[47] 例如《独白》,“理性”和“我”,一个问,一个答,仿佛是两个,虽然实际上只有一个(Retractationes,1.1.1)[48] 《泰阿泰德篇》190a, 《智者篇》263e, 《斐莱布斯篇》38c-e。参见Monique Dixsaut, Platon et la question de la pensee, Paris, 2000, ch.1。不过这是否是柏拉图对“思”(dianoia)的最终理解,仍然值得进一步研究。[49] 《论教师》开篇(1.1.39-49)阿德奥达图斯提到的“祈祷”已经预见了这一方向。[50] 巴尔塔萨敏锐地捕捉到了奥古斯丁与希腊思想的这一关键区别:“《忏悔录》中的对话要素,并不能取消《独白》中的独白要素,后者有其自身的道理:不可能将思简单地还原为对话,原因正在于,上帝不是思这一个体行为的一个有限的对话同伴,而是它的本体论基础(interior intimo meo)”。参见Hans Von Balthasar, The Glory of the Lord, Vol.Ⅱ, New York, 1985, p.110。(原载《思想与社会》第七辑 《教育与现代社会》)
  7. 麦尔维尔:书记员巴特比:一个华尔街的故事
    2011/04/12 | 阅读: 3191
    BARTLEBY, THE SCRIVENER.A STORY OF WALL-STREET.I am a rather elderly man. The nature of my avocations for the last thirty years has brought me into more than ordinary contact with what would seem an interesting and somewhat singular set of men, of whom as yet nothing that I know of has ever been written:—I mean the law-copyists or scriveners. I have known very many of them, professionally and privately, and if I pleased, could relate divers histories, at which good-natured gentlemen might smile, and sentimental souls might weep. But I waive the biographies of all other scriveners for a few passages in the life of Bartleby, who was a scrivener of the strangest I ever saw or heard of. While of other law-copyists I might write the complete life, of Bartleby nothing of that sort can be done. I believe that no materials exist for a full and satisfactory biography of this man. It is an irreparable loss to literature. Bartleby was one of those beings of whom nothing is ascertainable, except from the original sources, and in his case those are very small. What my own astonished eyes saw of Bartleby, that is all I know of him, except, indeed, one vague report which will appear in the sequel.Ere introducing the scrivener, as he first appeared to me, it is fit I make some mention of myself, my employees, my business, my chambers, and general surroundings; because some such description is indispensable to an adequate understanding of the chief character about to be presented.Imprimis: I am a man who, from his youth upwards, has been filled with a profound conviction that the easiest way of life is the best. Hence, though I belong to a profession proverbially energetic and nervous, even to turbulence, at times, yet nothing of that sort have I ever suffered to invade my peace. I am one of those unambitious lawyers who never addresses a jury, or in any way draws down public applause; but in the cool tranquility of a snug retreat, do a snug business among rich men's bonds and mortgages and title-deeds. All who know me, consider me an eminently safe man. The late John Jacob Astor, a personage little given to poetic enthusiasm, had no hesitation in pronouncing my first grand point to be prudence; my next, method. I do not speak it in vanity, but simply record the fact, that I was not unemployed in my profession by the late John Jacob Astor; a name which, I admit, I love to repeat, for it hath a rounded and orbicular sound to it, and rings like unto bullion. I will freely add, that I was not insensible to the late John Jacob Astor's good opinion.Some time prior to the period at which this little history begins, my avocations had been largely increased. The good old office, now extinct in the State of New York, of a Master in Chancery, had been conferred upon me. It was not a very arduous office, but very pleasantly remunerative. I seldom lose my temper; much more seldom indulge in dangerous indignation at wrongs and outrages; but I must be permitted to be rash here and declare, that I consider the sudden and violent abrogation of the office of Master in Chancery, by the new Constitution, as a—premature act; inasmuch as I had counted upon a life-lease of the profits, whereas I only received those of a few short years. But this is by the way.My chambers were up stairs at No.—Wall-street. At one end they looked upon the white wall of the interior of a spacious sky-light shaft, penetrating the building from top to bottom. This view might have been considered rather tame than otherwise, deficient in what landscape painters call "life." But if so, the view from the other end of my chambers offered, at least, a contrast, if nothing more. In that direction my windows commanded an unobstructed view of a lofty brick wall, black by age and everlasting shade; which wall required no spy-glass to bring out its lurking beauties, but for the benefit of all near-sighted spectators, was pushed up to within ten feet of my window panes. Owing to the great height of the surrounding buildings, and my chambers being on the second floor, the interval between this wall and mine not a little resembled a huge square cistern.At the period just preceding the advent of Bartleby, I had two persons as copyists in my employment, and a promising lad as an office-boy. First, Turkey; second, Nippers; third, Ginger Nut. These may seem names, the like of which are not usually found in the Directory. In truth they were nicknames, mutually conferred upon each other by my three clerks, and were deemed expressive of their respective persons or characters. Turkey was a short, pursy Englishman of about my own age, that is, somewhere not far from sixty. In the morning, one might say, his face was of a fine florid hue, but after twelve o'clock, meridian—his dinner hour—it blazed like a grate full of Christmas coals; and continued blazing—but, as it were, with a gradual wane—till 6 o'clock, P.M. or thereabouts, after which I saw no more of the proprietor of the face, which gaining its meridian with the sun, seemed to set with it, to rise, culminate, and decline the following day, with the like regularity and undiminished glory. There are many singular coincidences I have known in the course of my life, not the least among which was the fact, that exactly when Turkey displayed his fullest beams from his red and radiant countenance, just then, too, at that critical moment, began the daily period when I considered his business capacities as seriously disturbed for the remainder of the twenty-four hours. Not that he was absolutely idle, or averse to business then; far from it. The difficulty was, he was apt to be altogether too energetic. There was a strange, inflamed, flurried, flighty recklessness of activity about him. He would be incautious in dipping his pen into his inkstand. All his blots upon my documents, were dropped there after twelve o'clock, meridian. Indeed, not only would he be reckless and sadly given to making blots in the afternoon, but some days he went further, and was rather noisy. At such times, too, his face flamed with augmented blazonry, as if cannel coal had been heaped on anthracite. He made an unpleasant racket with his chair; spilled his sand-box; in mending his pens, impatiently split them all to pieces, and threw them on the floor in a sudden passion; stood up and leaned over his table, boxing his papers about in a most indecorous manner, very sad to behold in an elderly man like him. Nevertheless, as he was in many ways a most valuable person to me, and all the time before twelve o'clock, meridian, was the quickest, steadiest creature too, accomplishing a great deal of work in a style not easy to be matched—for these reasons, I was willing to overlook his eccentricities, though indeed, occasionally, I remonstrated with him. I did this very gently, however, because, though the civilest, nay, the blandest and most reverential of men in the morning, yet in the afternoon he was disposed, upon provocation, to be slightly rash with his tongue, in fact, insolent. Now, valuing his morning services as I did, and resolved not to lose them; yet, at the same time made uncomfortable by his inflamed ways after twelve o'clock; and being a man of peace, unwilling by my admonitions to call forth unseemly retorts from him; I took upon me, one Saturday noon (he was always worse on Saturdays), to hint to him, very kindly, that perhaps now that he was growing old, it might be well to abridge his labors; in short, he need not come to my chambers after twelve o'clock, but, dinner over, had best go home to his lodgings and rest himself till teatime. But no; he insisted upon his afternoon devotions. His countenance became intolerably fervid, as he oratorically assured me—gesticulating with a long ruler at the other end of the room—that if his services in the morning were useful, how indispensable, then, in the afternoon?"With submission, sir," said Turkey on this occasion, "I consider myself your right-hand man. In the morning I but marshal and deploy my columns; but in the afternoon I put myself at their head, and gallantly charge the foe, thus!"—and he made a violent thrust with the ruler."But the blots, Turkey," intimated I."True,—but, with submission, sir, behold these hairs! I am getting old. Surely, sir, a blot or two of a warm afternoon is not to be severely urged against gray hairs. Old age—even if it blot the page—is honorable. With submission, sir, we both are getting old."This appeal to my fellow-feeling was hardly to be resisted. At all events, I saw that go he would not. So I made up my mind to let him stay, resolving, nevertheless, to see to it, that during the afternoon he had to do with my less important papers.Nippers, the second on my list, was a whiskered, sallow, and, upon the whole, rather piratical-looking young man of about five and twenty. I always deemed him the victim of two evil powers—ambition and indigestion. The ambition was evinced by a certain impatience of the duties of a mere copyist, an unwarrantable usurpation of strictly professional affairs, such as the original drawing up of legal documents. The indigestion seemed betokened in an occasional nervous testiness and grinning irritability, causing the teeth to audibly grind together over mistakes committed in copying; unnecessary maledictions, hissed, rather than spoken, in the heat of business; and especially by a continual discontent with the height of the table where he worked. Though of a very ingenious mechanical turn, Nippers could never get this table to suit him. He put chips under it, blocks of various sorts, bits of pasteboard, and at last went so far as to attempt an exquisite adjustment by final pieces of folded blotting paper. But no invention would answer. If, for the sake of easing his back, he brought the table lid at a sharp angle well up towards his chin, and wrote there like a man using the steep roof of a Dutch house for his desk:—then he declared that it stopped the circulation in his arms. If now he lowered the table to his waistbands, and stooped over it in writing, then there was a sore aching in his back. In short, the truth of the matter was, Nippers knew not what he wanted. Or, if he wanted any thing, it was to be rid of a scrivener's table altogether. Among the manifestations of his diseased ambition was a fondness he had for receiving visits from certain ambiguous-looking fellows in seedy coats, whom he called his clients. Indeed I was aware that not only was he, at times, considerable of a ward-politician, but he occasionally did a little business at the Justices' courts, and was not unknown on the steps of the Tombs. I have good reason to believe, however, that one individual who called upon him at my chambers, and who, with a grand air, he insisted was his client, was no other than a dun, and the alleged title-deed, a bill. But with all his failings, and the annoyances he caused me, Nippers, like his compatriot Turkey, was a very useful man to me; wrote a neat, swift hand; and, when he chose, was not deficient in a gentlemanly sort of deportment. Added to this, he always dressed in a gentlemanly sort of way; and so, incidentally, reflected credit upon my chambers. Whereas with respect to Turkey, I had much ado to keep him from being a reproach to me. His clothes were apt to look oily and smell of eating-houses. He wore his pantaloons very loose and baggy in summer. His coats were execrable; his hat not to be handled. But while the hat was a thing of indifference to me, inasmuch as his natural civility and deference, as a dependent Englishman, always led him to doff it the moment he entered the room, yet his coat was another matter. Concerning his coats, I reasoned with him; but with no effect. The truth was, I suppose, that a man of so small an income, could not afford to sport such a lustrous face and a lustrous coat at one and the same time. As Nippers once observed, Turkey's money went chiefly for red ink. One winter day I presented Turkey with a highly-respectable looking coat of my own, a padded gray coat, of a most comfortable warmth, and which buttoned straight up from the knee to the neck. I thought Turkey would appreciate the favor, and abate his rashness and obstreperousness of afternoons. But no. I verily believe that buttoning himself up in so downy and blanket-like a coat had a pernicious effect upon him; upon the same principle that too much oats are bad for horses. In fact, precisely as a rash, restive horse is said to feel his oats, so Turkey felt his coat. It made him insolent. He was a man whom prosperity harmed.Though concerning the self-indulgent habits of Turkey I had my own private surmises, yet touching Nippers I was well persuaded that whatever might by his faults in other respects, he was, at least, a temperate young man. But indeed, nature herself seemed to have been his vintner, and at his birth charged him so thoroughly with an irritable, brandy-like disposition, that all subsequent potations were needless. When I consider how, amid the stillness of my chambers, Nippers would sometimes impatiently rise from his seat, and stooping over his table, spread his arms wide apart, seize the whole desk, and move it, and jerk it, with a grim, grinding motion on the floor, as if the table were a perverse voluntary agent, intent on thwarting and vexing him; I plainly perceive that for Nippers, brandy and water were altogether superfluous.It was fortunate for me that, owing to its peculiar cause—indigestion—the irritability and consequent nervousness of Nippers, were mainly observable in the morning, while in the afternoon he was comparatively mild. So that Turkey's paroxysms only coming on about twelve o'clock, I never had to do with their eccentricities at one time. Their fits relieved each other like guards. When Nippers' was on, Turkey's was off; and vice versa. This was a good natural arrangement under the circumstances.Ginger Nut, the third on my list, was a lad some twelve years old. His father was a carman, ambitious of seeing his son on the bench instead of a cart, before he died. So he sent him to my office as student at law, errand boy, and cleaner and sweeper, at the rate of one dollar a week. He had a little desk to himself, but he did not use it much. Upon inspection, the drawer exhibited a great array of the shells of various sorts of nuts. Indeed, to this quick-witted youth the whole noble science of the law was contained in a nut-shell. Not the least among the employments of Ginger Nut, as well as one which he discharged with the most alacrity, was his duty as cake and apple purveyor for Turkey and Nippers. Copying law papers being proverbially dry, husky sort of business, my two scriveners were fain to moisten their mouths very often with Spitzenbergs to be had at the numerous stalls nigh the Custom House and Post Office. Also, they sent Ginger Nut very frequently for that peculiar cake—small, flat, round, and very spicy—after which he had been named by them. Of a cold morning when business was but dull, Turkey would gobble up scores of these cakes, as if they were mere wafers—indeed they sell them at the rate of six or eight for a penny—the scrape of his pen blending with the crunching of the crisp particles in his mouth. Of all the fiery afternoon blunders and flurried rashnesses of Turkey, was his once moistening a ginger-cake between his lips, and clapping it on to a mortgage for a seal. I came within an ace of dismissing him then. But he mollified me by making an oriental bow, and saying—"With submission, sir, it was generous of me to find you in stationery on my own account."Now my original business—that of a conveyancer and title hunter, and drawer-up of recondite documents of all sorts—was considerably increased by receiving the master's office. There was now great work for scriveners. Not only must I push the clerks already with me, but I must have additional help. In answer to my advertisement, a motionless young man one morning, stood upon my office threshold, the door being open, for it was summer. I can see that figure now—pallidly neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn! It was Bartleby.After a few words touching his qualifications, I engaged him, glad to have among my corps of copyists a man of so singularly sedate an aspect, which I thought might operate beneficially upon the flighty temper of Turkey, and the fiery one of Nippers.I should have stated before that ground glass folding-doors divided my premises into two parts, one of which was occupied by my scriveners, the other by myself. According to my humor I threw open these doors, or closed them. I resolved to assign Bartleby a corner by the folding-doors, but on my side of them, so as to have this quiet man within easy call, in case any trifling thing was to be done. I placed his desk close up to a small side-window in that part of the room, a window which originally had afforded a lateral view of certain grimy back-yards and bricks, but which, owing to subsequent erections, commanded at present no view at all, though it gave some light. Within three feet of the panes was a wall, and the light came down from far above, between two lofty buildings, as from a very small opening in a dome. Still further to a satisfactory arrangement, I procured a high green folding screen, which might entirely isolate Bartleby from my sight, though not remove him from my voice. And thus, in a manner, privacy and society were conjoined.At first Bartleby did an extraordinary quantity of writing. As if long famishing for something to copy, he seemed to gorge himself on my documents. There was no pause for digestion. He ran a day and night line, copying by sun-light and by candle-light. I should have been quite delighted with his application, had he been cheerfully industrious. But he wrote on silently, palely, mechanically.It is, of course, an indispensable part of a scrivener's business to verify the accuracy of his copy, word by word. Where there are two or more scriveners in an office, they assist each other in this examination, one reading from the copy, the other holding the original. It is a very dull, wearisome, and lethargic affair. I can readily imagine that to some sanguine temperaments it would be altogether intolerable. For example, I cannot credit that the mettlesome poet Byron would have contentedly sat down with Bartleby to examine a law document of, say five hundred pages, closely written in a crimpy hand.Now and then, in the haste of business, it had been my habit to assist in comparing some brief document myself, calling Turkey or Nippers for this purpose. One object I had in placing Bartleby so handy to me behind the screen, was to avail myself of his services on such trivial occasions. It was on the third day, I think, of his being with me, and before any necessity had arisen for having his own writing examined, that, being much hurried to complete a small affair I had in hand, I abruptly called to Bartleby. In my haste and natural expectancy of instant compliance, I sat with my head bent over the original on my desk, and my right hand sideways, and somewhat nervously extended with the copy, so that immediately upon emerging from his retreat, Bartleby might snatch it and proceed to business without the least delay.In this very attitude did I sit when I called to him, rapidly stating what it was I wanted him to do—namely, to examine a small paper with me. Imagine my surprise, nay, my consternation, when without moving from his privacy, Bartleby in a singularly mild, firm voice, replied, "I would prefer not to."I sat awhile in perfect silence, rallying my stunned faculties. Immediately it occurred to me that my ears had deceived me, or Bartleby had entirely misunderstood my meaning. I repeated my request in the clearest tone I could assume. But in quite as clear a one came the previous reply, "I would prefer not to.""Prefer not to," echoed I, rising in high excitement, and crossing the room with a stride. "What do you mean? Are you moon-struck? I want you to help me compare this sheet here—take it," and I thrust it towards him."I would prefer not to," said he.I looked at him steadfastly. His face was leanly composed; his gray eye dimly calm. Not a wrinkle of agitation rippled him. Had there been the least uneasiness, anger, impatience or impertinence in his manner; in other words, had there been any thing ordinarily human about him, doubtless I should have violently dismissed him from the premises. But as it was, I should have as soon thought of turning my pale plaster-of-paris bust of Cicero out of doors. I stood gazing at him awhile, as he went on with his own writing, and then reseated myself at my desk. This is very strange, thought I. What had one best do? But my business hurried me. I concluded to forget the matter for the present, reserving it for my future leisure. So calling Nippers from the other room, the paper was speedily examined.A few days after this, Bartleby concluded four lengthy documents, being quadruplicates of a week's testimony taken before me in my High Court of Chancery. It became necessary to examine them. It was an important suit, and great accuracy was imperative. Having all things arranged I called Turkey, Nippers and Ginger Nut from the next room, meaning to place the four copies in the hands of my four clerks, while I should read from the original. Accordingly Turkey, Nippers and Ginger Nut had taken their seats in a row, each with his document in hand, when I called to Bartleby to join this interesting group."Bartleby! quick, I am waiting."I heard a slow scrape of his chair legs on the uncarpeted floor, and soon he appeared standing at the entrance of his hermitage."What is wanted?" said he mildly."The copies, the copies," said I hurriedly. "We are going to examine them. There"—and I held towards him the fourth quadruplicate."I would prefer not to," he said, and gently disappeared behind the screen.For a few moments I was turned into a pillar of salt, standing at the head of my seated column of clerks. Recovering myself, I advanced towards the screen, and demanded the reason for such extraordinary conduct."Why do you refuse?""I would prefer not to."With any other man I should have flown outright into a dreadful passion, scorned all further words, and thrust him ignominiously from my presence. But there was something about Bartleby that not only strangely disarmed me, but in a wonderful manner touched and disconcerted me. I began to reason with him."These are your own copies we are about to examine. It is labor saving to you, because one examination will answer for your four papers. It is common usage. Every copyist is bound to help examine his copy. Is it not so? Will you not speak? Answer!""I prefer not to," he replied in a flute-like tone. It seemed to me that while I had been addressing him, he carefully revolved every statement that I made; fully comprehended the meaning; could not gainsay the irresistible conclusions; but, at the same time, some paramount consideration prevailed with him to reply as he did."You are decided, then, not to comply with my request—a request made according to common usage and common sense?"He briefly gave me to understand that on that point my judgment was sound. Yes: his decision was irreversible.It is not seldom the case that when a man is browbeaten in some unprecedented and violently unreasonable way, he begins to stagger in his own plainest faith. He begins, as it were, vaguely to surmise that, wonderful as it may be, all the justice and all the reason is on the other side. Accordingly, if any disinterested persons are present, he turns to them for some reinforcement for his own faltering mind."Turkey," said I, "what do you think of this? Am I not right?""With submission, sir," said Turkey, with his blandest tone, "I think that you are.""Nippers," said I, "what do you think of it?""I think I should kick him out of the office."(The reader of nice perceptions will here perceive that, it being morning, Turkey's answer is couched in polite and tranquil terms, but Nippers replies in ill-tempered ones. Or, to repeat a previous sentence, Nippers' ugly mood was on duty and Turkey's off.)"Ginger Nut," said I, willing to enlist the smallest suffrage in my behalf, "what do you think of it?""I think, sir, he's a little luny," replied Ginger Nut with a grin."You hear what they say," said I, turning towards the screen, "come forth and do your duty."But he vouchsafed no reply. I pondered a moment in sore perplexity. But once more business hurried me. I determined again to postpone the consideration of this dilemma to my future leisure. With a little trouble we made out to examine the papers without Bartleby, though at every page or two, Turkey deferentially dropped his opinion that this proceeding was quite out of the common; while Nippers, twitching in his chair with a dyspeptic nervousness, ground out between his set teeth occasional hissing maledictions against the stubborn oaf behind the screen. And for his (Nippers') part, this was the first and the last time he would do another man's business without pay.Meanwhile Bartleby sat in his hermitage, oblivious to every thing but his own peculiar business there.Some days passed, the scrivener being employed upon another lengthy work. His late remarkable conduct led me to regard his ways narrowly. I observed that he never went to dinner; indeed that he never went any where. As yet I had never of my personal knowledge known him to be outside of my office. He was a perpetual sentry in the corner. At about eleven o'clock though, in the morning, I noticed that Ginger Nut would advance toward the opening in Bartleby's screen, as if silently beckoned thither by a gesture invisible to me where I sat. The boy would then leave the office jingling a few pence, and reappear with a handful of ginger-nuts which he delivered in the hermitage, receiving two of the cakes for his trouble.He lives, then, on ginger-nuts, thought I; never eats a dinner, properly speaking; he must be a vegetarian then; but no; he never eats even vegetables, he eats nothing but ginger-nuts. My mind then ran on in reveries concerning the probable effects upon the human constitution of living entirely on ginger-nuts. Ginger-nuts are so called because they contain ginger as one of their peculiar constituents, and the final flavoring one. Now what was ginger? A hot, spicy thing. Was Bartleby hot and spicy? Not at all. Ginger, then, had no effect upon Bartleby. Probably he preferred it should have none.Nothing so aggravates an earnest person as a passive resistance. If the individual so resisted be of a not inhumane temper, and the resisting one perfectly harmless in his passivity; then, in the better moods of the former, he will endeavor charitably to construe to his imagination what proves impossible to be solved by his judgment. Even so, for the most part, I regarded Bartleby and his ways. Poor fellow! thought I, he means no mischief; it is plain he intends no insolence; his aspect sufficiently evinces that his eccentricities are involuntary. He is useful to me. I can get along with him. If I turn him away, the chances are he will fall in with some less indulgent employer, and then he will be rudely treated, and perhaps driven forth miserably to starve. Yes. Here I can cheaply purchase a delicious self-approval. To befriend Bartleby; to humor him in his strange willfulness, will cost me little or nothing, while I lay up in my soul what will eventually prove a sweet morsel for my conscience. But this mood was not invariable with me. The passiveness of Bartleby sometimes irritated me. I felt strangely goaded on to encounter him in new opposition, to elicit some angry spark from him answerable to my own. But indeed I might as well have essayed to strike fire with my knuckles against a bit of Windsor soap. But one afternoon the evil impulse in me mastered me, and the following little scene ensued:"Bartleby," said I, "when those papers are all copied, I will compare them with you.""I would prefer not to.""How? Surely you do not mean to persist in that mulish vagary?"No answer.I threw open the folding-doors near by, and turning upon Turkey andNippers, exclaimed in an excited manner—"He says, a second time, he won't examine his papers. What do you think of it, Turkey?"It was afternoon, be it remembered. Turkey sat glowing like a brass boiler, his bald head steaming, his hands reeling among his blotted papers."Think of it?" roared Turkey; "I think I'll just step behind his screen, and black his eyes for him!"So saying, Turkey rose to his feet and threw his arms into a pugilistic position. He was hurrying away to make good his promise, when I detained him, alarmed at the effect of incautiously rousing Turkey's combativeness after dinner."Sit down, Turkey," said I, "and hear what Nippers has to say. What do you think of it, Nippers? Would I not be justified in immediately dismissing Bartleby?""Excuse me, that is for you to decide, sir. I think his conduct quite unusual, and indeed unjust, as regards Turkey and myself. But it may only be a passing whim.""Ah," exclaimed I, "you have strangely changed your mind then—you speak very gently of him now.""All beer," cried Turkey; "gentleness is effects of beer—Nippers and I dined together to-day. You see how gentle I am, sir. Shall I go and black his eyes?""You refer to Bartleby, I suppose. No, not to-day, Turkey," I replied; "pray, put up your fists."I closed the doors, and again advanced towards Bartleby. I felt additional incentives tempting me to my fate. I burned to be rebelled against again. I remembered that Bartleby never left the office."Bartleby," said I, "Ginger Nut is away; just step round to the Post Office, won't you? (it was but a three minute walk,) and see if there is any thing for me.""I would prefer not to.""You will not?""I prefer not."I staggered to my desk, and sat there in a deep study. My blind inveteracy returned. Was there any other thing in which I could procure myself to be ignominiously repulsed by this lean, penniless wight?—my hired clerk? What added thing is there, perfectly reasonable, that he will be sure to refuse to do?"Bartleby!"No answer."Bartleby," in a louder tone.No answer."Bartleby," I roared.Like a very ghost, agreeably to the laws of magical invocation, at the third summons, he appeared at the entrance of his hermitage."Go to the next room, and tell Nippers to come to me.""I prefer not to," he respectfully and slowly said, and mildly disappeared."Very good, Bartleby," said I, in a quiet sort of serenely severe self-possessed tone, intimating the unalterable purpose of some terrible retribution very close at hand. At the moment I half intended something of the kind. But upon the whole, as it was drawing towards my dinner-hour, I thought it best to put on my hat and walk home for the day, suffering much from perplexity and distress of mind.Shall I acknowledge it? The conclusion of this whole business was, that it soon became a fixed fact of my chambers, that a pale young scrivener, by the name of Bartleby, and a desk there; that he copied for me at the usual rate of four cents a folio (one hundred words); but he was permanently exempt from examining the work done by him, that duty being transferred to Turkey and Nippers, one of compliment doubtless to their superior acuteness; moreover, said Bartleby was never on any account to be dispatched on the most trivial errand of any sort; and that even if entreated to take upon him such a matter, it was generally understood that he would prefer not to—in other words, that he would refuse pointblank.As days passed on, I became considerably reconciled to Bartleby. His steadiness, his freedom from all dissipation, his incessant industry (except when he chose to throw himself into a standing revery behind his screen), his great, stillness, his unalterableness of demeanor under all circumstances, made him a valuable acquisition. One prime thing was this,—he was always there;—first in the morning, continually through the day, and the last at night. I had a singular confidence in his honesty. I felt my most precious papers perfectly safe in his hands. Sometimes to be sure I could not, for the very soul of me, avoid falling into sudden spasmodic passions with him. For it was exceeding difficult to bear in mind all the time those strange peculiarities, privileges, and unheard of exemptions, forming the tacit stipulations on Bartleby's part under which he remained in my office. Now and then, in the eagerness of dispatching pressing business, I would inadvertently summon Bartleby, in a short, rapid tone, to put his finger, say, on the incipient tie of a bit of red tape with which I was about compressing some papers. Of course, from behind the screen the usual answer, "I prefer not to," was sure to come; and then, how could a human creature with the common infirmities of our nature, refrain from bitterly exclaiming upon such perverseness—such unreasonableness. However, every added repulse of this sort which I received only tended to lessen the probability of my repeating the inadvertence.Here it must be said, that according to the custom of most legal gentlemen occupying chambers in densely-populated law buildings, there were several keys to my door. One was kept by a woman residing in the attic, which person weekly scrubbed and daily swept and dusted my apartments. Another was kept by Turkey for convenience sake. The third I sometimes carried in my own pocket. The fourth I knew not who had.Now, one Sunday morning I happened to go to Trinity Church, to hear a celebrated preacher, and finding myself rather early on the ground, I thought I would walk around to my chambers for a while. Luckily I had my key with me; but upon applying it to the lock, I found it resisted by something inserted from the inside. Quite surprised, I called out; when to my consternation a key was turned from within; and thrusting his lean visage at me, and holding the door ajar, the apparition of Bartleby appeared, in his shirt sleeves, and otherwise in a strangely tattered dishabille, saying quietly that he was sorry, but he was deeply engaged just then, and—preferred not admitting me at present. In a brief word or two, he moreover added, that perhaps I had better walk round the block two or three times, and by that time he would probably have concluded his affairs.Now, the utterly unsurmised appearance of Bartleby, tenanting my law-chambers of a Sunday morning, with his cadaverously gentlemanly nonchalance, yet withal firm and self-possessed, had such a strange effect upon me, that incontinently I slunk away from my own door, and did as desired. But not without sundry twinges of impotent rebellion against the mild effrontery of this unaccountable scrivener. Indeed, it was his wonderful mildness chiefly, which not only disarmed me, but unmanned me, as it were. For I consider that one, for the time, is a sort of unmanned when he tranquilly permits his hired clerk to dictate to him, and order him away from his own premises. Furthermore, I was full of uneasiness as to what Bartleby could possibly be doing in my office in his shirt sleeves, and in an otherwise dismantled condition of a Sunday morning. Was any thing amiss going on? Nay, that was out of the question. It was not to be thought of for a moment that Bartleby was an immoral person. But what could he be doing there?—copying? Nay again, whatever might be his eccentricities, Bartleby was an eminently decorous person. He would be the last man to sit down to his desk in any state approaching to nudity. Besides, it was Sunday; and there was something about Bartleby that forbade the supposition that he would by any secular occupation violate the proprieties of the day.Nevertheless, my mind was not pacified; and full of a restless curiosity, at last I returned to the door. Without hindrance I inserted my key, opened it, and entered. Bartleby was not to be seen. I looked round anxiously, peeped behind his screen; but it was very plain that he was gone. Upon more closely examining the place, I surmised that for an indefinite period Bartleby must have ate, dressed, and slept in my office, and that too without plate, mirror, or bed. The cushioned seat of a rickety old sofa in one corner bore the faint impress of a lean, reclining form. Rolled away under his desk, I found a blanket; under the empty grate, a blacking box and brush; on a chair, a tin basin, with soap and a ragged towel; in a newspaper a few crumbs of ginger-nuts and a morsel of cheese. Yes, thought I, it is evident enough that Bartleby has been making his home here, keeping bachelor's hall all by himself. Immediately then the thought came sweeping across me, What miserable friendlessness and loneliness are here revealed! His poverty is great; but his solitude, how horrible! Think of it. Of a Sunday, Wall-street is deserted as Petra; and every night of every day it is an emptiness. This building too, which of week-days hums with industry and life, at nightfall echoes with sheer vacancy, and all through Sunday is forlorn. And here Bartleby makes his home; sole spectator of a solitude which he has seen all populous—a sort of innocent and transformed Marius brooding among the ruins of Carthage!For the first time in my life a feeling of overpowering stinging melancholy seized me. Before, I had never experienced aught but a not-unpleasing sadness. The bond of a common humanity now drew me irresistibly to gloom. A fraternal melancholy! For both I and Bartleby were sons of Adam. I remembered the bright silks and sparkling faces I had seen that day, in gala trim, swan-like sailing down the Mississippi of Broadway; and I contrasted them with the pallid copyist, and thought to myself, Ah, happiness courts the light, so we deem the world is gay; but misery hides aloof, so we deem that misery there is none. These sad fancyings—chimeras, doubtless, of a sick and silly brain—led on to other and more special thoughts, concerning the eccentricities of Bartleby. Presentiments of strange discoveries hovered round me. The scrivener's pale form appeared to me laid out, among uncaring strangers, in its shivering winding sheet.Suddenly I was attracted by Bartleby's closed desk, the key in open sight left in the lock.I mean no mischief, seek the gratification of no heartless curiosity, thought I; besides, the desk is mine, and its contents too, so I will make bold to look within. Every thing was methodically arranged, the papers smoothly placed. The pigeon holes were deep, and removing the files of documents, I groped into their recesses. Presently I felt something there, and dragged it out. It was an old bandanna handkerchief, heavy and knotted. I opened it, and saw it was a savings' bank.I now recalled all the quiet mysteries which I had noted in the man. I remembered that he never spoke but to answer; that though at intervals he had considerable time to himself, yet I had never seen him reading—no, not even a newspaper; that for long periods he would stand looking out, at his pale window behind the screen, upon the dead brick wall; I was quite sure he never visited any refectory or eating house; while his pale face clearly indicated that he never drank beer like Turkey, or tea and coffee even, like other men; that he never went any where in particular that I could learn; never went out for a walk, unless indeed that was the case at present; that he had declined telling who he was, or whence he came, or whether he had any relatives in the world; that though so thin and pale, he never complained of ill health. And more than all, I remembered a certain unconscious air of pallid—how shall I call it?—of pallid haughtiness, say, or rather an austere reserve about him, which had positively awed me into my tame compliance with his eccentricities, when I had feared to ask him to do the slightest incidental thing for me, even though I might know, from his long-continued motionlessness, that behind his screen he must be standing in one of those dead-wall reveries of his.Revolving all these things, and coupling them with the recently discovered fact that he made my office his constant abiding place and home, and not forgetful of his morbid moodiness; revolving all these things, a prudential feeling began to steal over me. My first emotions had been those of pure melancholy and sincerest pity; but just in proportion as the forlornness of Bartleby grew and grew to my imagination, did that same melancholy merge into fear, that pity into repulsion. So true it is, and so terrible too, that up to a certain point the thought or sight of misery enlists our best affections; but, in certain special cases, beyond that point it does not. They err who would assert that invariably this is owing to the inherent selfishness of the human heart. It rather proceeds from a certain hopelessness of remedying excessive and organic ill. To a sensitive being, pity is not seldom pain. And when at last it is perceived that such pity cannot lead to effectual succor, common sense bids the soul rid of it. What I saw that morning persuaded me that the scrivener was the victim of innate and incurable disorder. I might give alms to his body; but his body did not pain him; it was his soul that suffered, and his soul I could not reach.I did not accomplish the purpose of going to Trinity Church that morning. Somehow, the things I had seen disqualified me for the time from church-going. I walked homeward, thinking what I would do with Bartleby. Finally, I resolved upon this;—I would put certain calm questions to him the next morning, touching his history, etc., and if he declined to answer them openly and unreservedly (and I supposed he would prefer not), then to give him a twenty dollar bill over and above whatever I might owe him, and tell him his services were no longer required; but that if in any other way I could assist him, I would be happy to do so, especially if he desired to return to his native place, wherever that might be, I would willingly help to defray the expenses. Moreover, if, after reaching home, he found himself at any time in want of aid, a letter from him would be sure of a reply.The next morning came."Bartleby," said I, gently calling to him behind his screen.No reply."Bartleby," said I, in a still gentler tone, "come here; I am not going to ask you to do any thing you would prefer not to do—I simply wish to speak to you."Upon this he noiselessly slid into view."Will you tell me, Bartleby, where you were born?""I would prefer not to.""Will you tell me any thing about yourself?""I would prefer not to.""But what reasonable objection can you have to speak to me? I feel friendly towards you."He did not look at me while I spoke, but kept his glance fixed upon my bust of Cicero, which as I then sat, was directly behind me, some six inches above my head."What is your answer, Bartleby?" said I, after waiting a considerable time for a reply, during which his countenance remained immovable, only there was the faintest conceivable tremor of the white attenuated mouth."At present I prefer to give no answer," he said, and retired into his hermitage.It was rather weak in me I confess, but his manner on this occasion nettled me. Not only did there seem to lurk in it a certain calm disdain, but his perverseness seemed ungrateful, considering the undeniable good usage and indulgence he had received from me.Again I sat ruminating what I should do. Mortified as I was at his behavior, and resolved as I had been to dismiss him when I entered my offices, nevertheless I strangely felt something superstitious knocking at my heart, and forbidding me to carry out my purpose, and denouncing me for a villain if I dared to breathe one bitter word against this forlornest of mankind. At last, familiarly drawing my chair behind his screen, I sat down and said: "Bartleby, never mind then about revealing your history; but let me entreat you, as a friend, to comply as far as may be with the usages of this office. Say now you will help to examine papers to-morrow or next day: in short, say now that in a day or two you will begin to be a little reasonable:—say so, Bartleby.""At present I would prefer not to be a little reasonable," was his mildly cadaverous reply.Just then the folding-doors opened, and Nippers approached. He seemed suffering from an unusually bad night's rest, induced by severer indigestion then common. He overheard those final words of Bartleby."Prefer not, eh?" gritted Nippers—"I'd prefer him, if I were you, sir," addressing me—"I'd prefer him; I'd give him preferences, the stubborn mule! What is it, sir, pray, that he prefers not to do now?"Bartleby moved not a limb."Mr. Nippers," said I, "I'd prefer that you would withdraw for the present."Somehow, of late I had got into the way of involuntarily using this word "prefer" upon all sorts of not exactly suitable occasions. And I trembled to think that my contact with the scrivener had already and seriously affected me in a mental way. And what further and deeper aberration might it not yet produce? This apprehension had not been without efficacy in determining me to summary means.As Nippers, looking very sour and sulky, was departing, Turkey blandly and deferentially approached."With submission, sir," said he, "yesterday I was thinking about Bartleby here, and I think that if he would but prefer to take a quart of good ale every day, it would do much towards mending him, and enabling him to assist in examining his papers.""So you have got the word too," said I, slightly excited."With submission, what word, sir," asked Turkey, respectfully crowding himself into the contracted space behind the screen, and by so doing, making me jostle the scrivener. "What word, sir?""I would prefer to be left alone here," said Bartleby, as if offended at being mobbed in his privacy."That's the word, Turkey," said I—"that's it.""Oh, prefer? oh yes—queer word. I never use it myself. But, sir, asI was saying, if he would but prefer—""Turkey," interrupted I, "you will please withdraw.""Oh certainly, sir, if you prefer that I should."As he opened the folding-door to retire, Nippers at his desk caught a glimpse of me, and asked whether I would prefer to have a certain paper copied on blue paper or white. He did not in the least roguishly accent the word prefer. It was plain that it involuntarily rolled form his tongue. I thought to myself, surely I must get rid of a demented man, who already has in some degree turned the tongues, if not the heads of myself and clerks. But I thought it prudent not to break the dismission at once.The next day I noticed that Bartleby did nothing but stand at his window in his dead-wall revery. Upon asking him why he did not write, he said that he had decided upon doing no more writing."Why, how now? what next?" exclaimed I, "do no more writing?""No more.""And what is the reason?""Do you not see the reason for yourself," he indifferently replied.I looked steadfastly at him, and perceived that his eyes looked dull and glazed. Instantly it occurred to me, that his unexampled diligence in copying by his dim window for the first few weeks of his stay with me might have temporarily impaired his vision.I was touched. I said something in condolence with him. I hinted that of course he did wisely in abstaining from writing for a while; and urged him to embrace that opportunity of taking wholesome exercise in the open air. This, however, he did not do. A few days after this, my other clerks being absent, and being in a great hurry to dispatch certain letters by the mail, I thought that, having nothing else earthly to do, Bartleby would surely be less inflexible than usual, and carry these letters to the post-office. But he blankly declined. So, much to my inconvenience, I went myself.Still added days went by. Whether Bartleby's eyes improved or not, I could not say. To all appearance, I thought they did. But when I asked him if they did, he vouchsafed no answer. At all events, he would do no copying. At last, in reply to my urgings, he informed me that he had permanently given up copying."What!" exclaimed I; "suppose your eyes should get entirely well—better than ever before—would you not copy then?""I have given up copying," he answered, and slid aside.He remained as ever, a fixture in my chamber. Nay—if that were possible—he became still more of a fixture than before. What was to be done? He would do nothing in the office: why should he stay there? In plain fact, he had now become a millstone to me, not only useless as a necklace, but afflictive to bear. Yet I was sorry for him. I speak less than truth when I say that, on his own account, he occasioned me uneasiness. If he would but have named a single relative or friend, I would instantly have written, and urged their taking the poor fellow away to some convenient retreat. But he seemed alone, absolutely alone in the universe. A bit of wreck in the mid Atlantic. At length, necessities connected with my business tyrannized over all other considerations. Decently as I could, I told Bartleby that in six days' time he must unconditionally leave the office. I warned him to take measures, in the interval, for procuring some other abode. I offered to assist him in this endeavor, if he himself would but take the first step towards a removal. "And when you finally quit me, Bartleby," added I, "I shall see that you go not away entirely unprovided. Six days from this hour, remember."At the expiration of that period, I peeped behind the screen, and lo!Bartleby was there.I buttoned up my coat, balanced myself; advanced slowly towards him, touched his shoulder, and said, "The time has come; you must quit this place; I am sorry for you; here is money; but you must go.""I would prefer not," he replied, with his back still towards me."You must."He remained silent.Now I had an unbounded confidence in this man's common honesty. He had frequently restored to me sixpences and shillings carelessly dropped upon the floor, for I am apt to be very reckless in such shirt-button affairs. The proceeding then which followed will not be deemed extraordinary."Bartleby," said I, "I owe you twelve dollars on account; here are thirty-two; the odd twenty are yours.—Will you take it?" and I handed the bills towards him.But he made no motion."I will leave them here then," putting them under a weight on the table. Then taking my hat and cane and going to the door I tranquilly turned and added—"After you have removed your things from these offices, Bartleby, you will of course lock the door—since every one is now gone for the day but you—and if you please, slip your key underneath the mat, so that I may have it in the morning. I shall not see you again; so good-bye to you. If hereafter in your new place of abode I can be of any service to you, do not fail to advise me by letter. Good-bye, Bartleby, and fare you well."But he answered not a word; like the last column of some ruined temple, he remained standing mute and solitary in the middle of the otherwise deserted room.As I walked home in a pensive mood, my vanity got the better of my pity. I could not but highly plume myself on my masterly management in getting rid of Bartleby. Masterly I call it, and such it must appear to any dispassionate thinker. The beauty of my procedure seemed to consist in its perfect quietness. There was no vulgar bullying, no bravado of any sort, no choleric hectoring, and striding to and fro across the apartment, jerking out vehement commands for Bartleby to bundle himself off with his beggarly traps. Nothing of the kind. Without loudly bidding Bartleby depart—as an inferior genius might have done—I assumed the ground that depart he must; and upon that assumption built all I had to say. The more I thought over my procedure, the more I was charmed with it. Nevertheless, next morning, upon awakening, I had my doubts,—I had somehow slept off the fumes of vanity. One of the coolest and wisest hours a man has, is just after he awakes in the morning. My procedure seemed as sagacious as ever.—but only in theory. How it would prove in practice—there was the rub. It was truly a beautiful thought to have assumed Bartleby's departure; but, after all, that assumption was simply my own, and none of Bartleby's. The great point was, not whether I had assumed that he would quit me, but whether he would prefer so to do. He was more a man of preferences than assumptions.After breakfast, I walked down town, arguing the probabilities pro and con. One moment I thought it would prove a miserable failure, and Bartleby would be found all alive at my office as usual; the next moment it seemed certain that I should see his chair empty. And so I kept veering about. At the corner of Broadway and Canal-street, I saw quite an excited group of people standing in earnest conversation."I'll take odds he doesn't," said a voice as I passed."Doesn't go?—done!" said I, "put up your money."I was instinctively putting my hand in my pocket to produce my own, when I remembered that this was an election day. The words I had overheard bore no reference to Bartleby, but to the success or non-success of some candidate for the mayoralty. In my intent frame of mind, I had, as it were, imagined that all Broadway shared in my excitement, and were debating the same question with me. I passed on, very thankful that the uproar of the street screened my momentary absent-mindedness.As I had intended, I was earlier than usual at my office door. I stood listening for a moment. All was still. He must be gone. I tried the knob. The door was locked. Yes, my procedure had worked to a charm; he indeed must be vanished. Yet a certain melancholy mixed with this: I was almost sorry for my brilliant success. I was fumbling under the door mat for the key, which Bartleby was to have left there for me, when accidentally my knee knocked against a panel, producing a summoning sound, and in response a voice came to me from within—"Not yet; I am occupied."It was Bartleby.I was thunderstruck. For an instant I stood like the man who, pipe in mouth, was killed one cloudless afternoon long ago in Virginia, by a summer lightning; at his own warm open window he was killed, and remained leaning out there upon the dreamy afternoon, till some one touched him, when he fell."Not gone!" I murmured at last. But again obeying that wondrous ascendancy which the inscrutable scrivener had over me, and from which ascendancy, for all my chafing, I could not completely escape, I slowly went down stairs and out into the street, and while walking round the block, considered what I should next do in this unheard-of perplexity. Turn the man out by an actual thrusting I could not; to drive him away by calling him hard names would not do; calling in the police was an unpleasant idea; and yet, permit him to enjoy his cadaverous triumph over me,—this too I could not think of. What was to be done? or, if nothing could be done, was there any thing further that I could assume in the matter? Yes, as before I had prospectively assumed that Bartleby would depart, so now I might retrospectively assume that departed he was. In the legitimate carrying out of this assumption, I might enter my office in a great hurry, and pretending not to see Bartleby at all, walk straight against him as if he were air. Such a proceeding would in a singular degree have the appearance of a home-thrust. It was hardly possible that Bartleby could withstand such an application of the doctrine of assumptions. But upon second thoughts the success of the plan seemed rather dubious. I resolved to argue the matter over with him again."Bartleby," said I, entering the office, with a quietly severe expression, "I am seriously displeased. I am pained, Bartleby. I had thought better of you. I had imagined you of such a gentlemanly organization, that in any delicate dilemma a slight hint would have suffice—in short, an assumption. But it appears I am deceived. Why," I added, unaffectedly starting, "you have not even touched that money yet," pointing to it, just where I had left it the evening previous.He answered nothing."Will you, or will you not, quit me?" I now demanded in a sudden passion, advancing close to him."I would prefer not to quit you," he replied, gently emphasizing the not."What earthly right have you to stay here? Do you pay any rent? Do you pay my taxes? Or is this property yours?"He answered nothing."Are you ready to go on and write now? Are your eyes recovered? Could you copy a small paper for me this morning? or help examine a few lines? or step round to the post-office? In a word, will you do any thing at all, to give a coloring to your refusal to depart the premises?"He silently retired into his hermitage.I was now in such a state of nervous resentment that I thought it but prudent to check myself at present from further demonstrations. Bartleby and I were alone. I remembered the tragedy of the unfortunate Adams and the still more unfortunate Colt in the solitary office of the latter; and how poor Colt, being dreadfully incensed by Adams, and imprudently permitting himself to get wildly excited, was at unawares hurried into his fatal act—an act which certainly no man could possibly deplore more than the actor himself. Often it had occurred to me in my ponderings upon the subject, that had that altercation taken place in the public street, or at a private residence, it would not have terminated as it did. It was the circumstance of being alone in a solitary office, up stairs, of a building entirely unhallowed by humanizing domestic associations—an uncarpeted office, doubtless, of a dusty, haggard sort of appearance;—this it must have been, which greatly helped to enhance the irritable desperation of the hapless Colt.But when this old Adam of resentment rose in me and tempted me concerning Bartleby, I grappled him and threw him. How? Why, simply by recalling the divine injunction: "A new commandment give I unto you, that ye love one another." Yes, this it was that saved me. Aside from higher considerations, charity often operates as a vastly wise and prudent principle—a great safeguard to its possessor. Men have committed murder for jealousy's sake, and anger's sake, and hatred's sake, and selfishness' sake, and spiritual pride's sake; but no man that ever I heard of, ever committed a diabolical murder for sweet charity's sake. Mere self-interest, then, if no better motive can be enlisted, should, especially with high-tempered men, prompt all beings to charity and philanthropy. At any rate, upon the occasion in question, I strove to drown my exasperated feelings towards the scrivener by benevolently construing his conduct. Poor fellow, poor fellow! thought I, he don't mean any thing; and besides, he has seen hard times, and ought to be indulged.I endeavored also immediately to occupy myself, and at the same time to comfort my despondency. I tried to fancy that in the course of the morning, at such time as might prove agreeable to him. Bartleby, of his own free accord, would emerge from his hermitage, and take up some decided line of march in the direction of the door. But no. Half-past twelve o'clock came; Turkey began to glow in the face, overturn his inkstand, and become generally obstreperous; Nippers abated down into quietude and courtesy; Ginger Nut munched his noon apple; and Bartleby remained standing at his window in one of his profoundest dead-wall reveries. Will it be credited? Ought I to acknowledge it? That afternoon I left the office without saying one further word to him.Some days now passed, during which, at leisure intervals I looked a little into "Edwards on the Will," and "Priestly on Necessity." Under the circumstances, those books induced a salutary feeling. Gradually I slid into the persuasion that these troubles of mine touching the scrivener, had been all predestinated from eternity, and Bartleby was billeted upon me for some mysterious purpose of an all-wise Providence, which it was not for a mere mortal like me to fathom. Yes, Bartleby, stay there behind your screen, thought I; I shall persecute you no more; you are harmless and noiseless as any of these old chairs; in short, I never feel so private as when I know you are here. At last I see it, I feel it; I penetrate to the predestinated purpose of my life. I am content. Others may have loftier parts to enact; but my mission in this world, Bartleby, is to furnish you with office-room for such period as you may see fit to remain.I believe that this wise and blessed frame of mind would have continued with me, had it not been for the unsolicited and uncharitable remarks obtruded upon me by my professional friends who visited the rooms. But thus it often is, that the constant friction of illiberal minds wears out at last the best resolves of the more generous. Though to be sure, when I reflected upon it, it was not strange that people entering my office should be struck by the peculiar aspect of the unaccountable Bartleby, and so be tempted to throw out some sinister observations concerning him. Sometimes an attorney having business with me, and calling at my office and finding no one but the scrivener there, would undertake to obtain some sort of precise information from him touching my whereabouts; but without heeding his idle talk, Bartleby would remain standing immovable in the middle of the room. So after contemplating him in that position for a time, the attorney would depart, no wiser than he came.Also, when a Reference was going on, and the room full of lawyers and witnesses and business was driving fast; some deeply occupied legal gentleman present, seeing Bartleby wholly unemployed, would request him to run round to his (the legal gentleman's) office and fetch some papers for him. Thereupon, Bartleby would tranquilly decline, and yet remain idle as before. Then the lawyer would give a great stare, and turn to me. And what could I say? At last I was made aware that all through the circle of my professional acquaintance, a whisper of wonder was running round, having reference to the strange creature I kept at my office. This worried me very much. And as the idea came upon me of his possibly turning out a long-lived man, and keep occupying my chambers, and denying my authority; and perplexing my visitors; and scandalizing my professional reputation; and casting a general gloom over the premises; keeping soul and body together to the last upon his savings (for doubtless he spent but half a dime a day), and in the end perhaps outlive me, and claim possession of my office by right of his perpetual occupancy: as all these dark anticipations crowded upon me more and more, and my friends continually intruded their relentless remarks upon the apparition in my room; a great change was wrought in me. I resolved to gather all my faculties together, and for ever rid me of this intolerable incubus.Ere revolving any complicated project, however, adapted to this end, I first simply suggested to Bartleby the propriety of his permanent departure. In a calm and serious tone, I commended the idea to his careful and mature consideration. But having taken three days to meditate upon it, he apprised me that his original determination remained the same in short, that he still preferred to abide with me.What shall I do? I now said to myself, buttoning up my coat to the last button. What shall I do? what ought I to do? what does conscience say I should do with this man, or rather ghost. Rid myself of him, I must; go, he shall. But how? You will not thrust him, the poor, pale, passive mortal,—you will not thrust such a helpless creature out of your door? you will not dishonor yourself by such cruelty? No, I will not, I cannot do that. Rather would I let him live and die here, and then mason up his remains in the wall. What then will you do? For all your coaxing, he will not budge. Bribes he leaves under your own paperweight on your table; in short, it is quite plain that he prefers to cling to you.Then something severe, something unusual must be done. What! surely you will not have him collared by a constable, and commit his innocent pallor to the common jail? And upon what ground could you procure such a thing to be done?—a vagrant, is he? What! he a vagrant, a wanderer, who refuses to budge? It is because he will not be a vagrant, then, that you seek to count him as a vagrant. That is too absurd. No visible means of support: there I have him. Wrong again: for indubitably he does support himself, and that is the only unanswerable proof that any man can show of his possessing the means so to do. No more then. Since he will not quit me, I must quit him. I will change my offices; I will move elsewhere; and give him fair notice, that if I find him on my new premises I will then proceed against him as a common trespasser.Acting accordingly, next day I thus addressed him: "I find these chambers too far from the City Hall; the air is unwholesome. In a word, I propose to remove my offices next week, and shall no longer require your services. I tell you this now, in order that you may seek another place."He made no reply, and nothing more was said.On the appointed day I engaged carts and men, proceeded to my chambers, and having but little furniture, every thing was removed in a few hours. Throughout, the scrivener remained standing behind the screen, which I directed to be removed the last thing. It was withdrawn; and being folded up like a huge folio, left him the motionless occupant of a naked room. I stood in the entry watching him a moment, while something from within me upbraided me.I re-entered, with my hand in my pocket—and—and my heart in my mouth."Good-bye, Bartleby; I am going—good-bye, and God some way bless you; and take that," slipping something in his hand. But it dropped upon the floor, and then,—strange to say—I tore myself from him whom I had so longed to be rid of.Established in my new quarters, for a day or two I kept the door locked, and started at every footfall in the passages. When I returned to my rooms after any little absence, I would pause at the threshold for an instant, and attentively listen, ere applying my key. But these fears were needless. Bartleby never came nigh me.I thought all was going well, when a perturbed looking stranger visited me, inquiring whether I was the person who had recently occupied rooms at No.—Wall-street.Full of forebodings, I replied that I was."Then sir," said the stranger, who proved a lawyer, "you are responsible for the man you left there. He refuses to do any copying; he refuses to do any thing; he says he prefers not to; and he refuses to quit the premises.""I am very sorry, sir," said I, with assumed tranquility, but an inward tremor, "but, really, the man you allude to is nothing to me—he is no relation or apprentice of mine, that you should hold me responsible for him.""In mercy's name, who is he?""I certainly cannot inform you. I know nothing about him. Formerly I employed him as a copyist; but he has done nothing for me now for some time past.""I shall settle him then,—good morning, sir."Several days passed, and I heard nothing more; and though I often felt a charitable prompting to call at the place and see poor Bartleby, yet a certain squeamishness of I know not what withheld me.All is over with him, by this time, thought I at last, when through another week no further intelligence reached me. But coming to my room the day after, I found several persons waiting at my door in a high state of nervous excitement."That's the man—here he comes," cried the foremost one, whom I recognized as the lawyer who had previously called upon me alone."You must take him away, sir, at once," cried a portly person among them, advancing upon me, and whom I knew to be the landlord of No.—Wall-street. "These gentlemen, my tenants, cannot stand it any longer; Mr. B—" pointing to the lawyer, "has turned him out of his room, and he now persists in haunting the building generally, sitting upon the banisters of the stairs by day, and sleeping in the entry by night. Every body is concerned; clients are leaving the offices; some fears are entertained of a mob; something you must do, and that without delay."Aghast at this torrent, I fell back before it, and would fain have locked myself in my new quarters. In vain I persisted that Bartleby was nothing to me—no more than to any one else. In vain:—I was the last person known to have any thing to do with him, and they held me to the terrible account. Fearful then of being exposed in the papers (as one person present obscurely threatened) I considered the matter, and at length said, that if the lawyer would give me a confidential interview with the scrivener, in his (the lawyer's) own room, I would that afternoon strive my best to rid them of the nuisance they complained of.Going up stairs to my old haunt, there was Bartleby silently sitting upon the banister at the landing."What are you doing here, Bartleby?" said I."Sitting upon the banister," he mildly replied.I motioned him into the lawyer's room, who then left us."Bartleby," said I, "are you aware that you are the cause of great tribulation to me, by persisting in occupying the entry after being dismissed from the office?"No answer."Now one of two things must take place. Either you must do something, or something must be done to you. Now what sort of business would you like to engage in? Would you like to re-engage in copying for some one?""No; I would prefer not to make any change.""Would you like a clerkship in a dry-goods store?""There is too much confinement about that. No, I would not like a clerkship; but I am not particular.""Too much confinement," I cried, "why you keep yourself confined all the time!""I would prefer not to take a clerkship," he rejoined, as if to settle that little item at once."How would a bar-tender's business suit you? There is no trying of the eyesight in that.""I would not like it at all; though, as I said before, I am not particular."His unwonted wordiness inspirited me. I returned to the charge."Well then, would you like to travel through the country collecting bills for the merchants? That would improve your health.""No, I would prefer to be doing something else.""How then would going as a companion to Europe, to entertain some young gentleman with your conversation,—how would that suit you?""Not at all. It does not strike me that there is any thing definite about that. I like to be stationary. But I am not particular.""Stationary you shall be then," I cried, now losing all patience, and for the first time in all my exasperating connection with him fairly flying into a passion. "If you do not go away from these premises before night, I shall feel bound—indeed I am bound—to—to—to quit the premises myself!" I rather absurdly concluded, knowing not with what possible threat to try to frighten his immobility into compliance. Despairing of all further efforts, I was precipitately leaving him, when a final thought occurred to me—one which had not been wholly unindulged before."Bartleby," said I, in the kindest tone I could assume under such exciting circumstances, "will you go home with me now—not to my office, but my dwelling—and remain there till we can conclude upon some convenient arrangement for you at our leisure? Come, let us start now, right away.""No: at present I would prefer not to make any change at all."I answered nothing; but effectually dodging every one by the suddenness and rapidity of my flight, rushed from the building, ran up Wall-street towards Broadway, and jumping into the first omnibus was soon removed from pursuit. As soon as tranquility returned I distinctly perceived that I had now done all that I possibly could, both in respect to the demands of the landlord and his tenants, and with regard to my own desire and sense of duty, to benefit Bartleby, and shield him from rude persecution. I now strove to be entirely care-free and quiescent; and my conscience justified me in the attempt; though indeed it was not so successful as I could have wished. So fearful was I of being again hunted out by the incensed landlord and his exasperated tenants, that, surrendering my business to Nippers, for a few days I drove about the upper part of the town and through the suburbs, in my rockaway; crossed over to Jersey City and Hoboken, and paid fugitive visits to Manhattanville and Astoria. In fact I almost lived in my rockaway for the time.When again I entered my office, lo, a note from the landlord lay upon the desk. I opened it with trembling hands. It informed me that the writer had sent to the police, and had Bartleby removed to the Tombs as a vagrant. Moreover, since I knew more about him than any one else, he wished me to appear at that place, and make a suitable statement of the facts. These tidings had a conflicting effect upon me. At first I was indignant; but at last almost approved. The landlord's energetic, summary disposition had led him to adopt a procedure which I do not think I would have decided upon myself; and yet as a last resort, under such peculiar circumstances, it seemed the only plan.As I afterwards learned, the poor scrivener, when told that he must be conducted to the Tombs, offered not the slightest obstacle, but in his pale unmoving way, silently acquiesced.Some of the compassionate and curious bystanders joined the party; and headed by one of the constables arm in arm with Bartleby, the silent procession filed its way through all the noise, and heat, and joy of the roaring thoroughfares at noon.The same day I received the note I went to the Tombs, or to speak more properly, the Halls of Justice. Seeking the right officer, I stated the purpose of my call, and was informed that the individual I described was indeed within. I then assured the functionary that Bartleby was a perfectly honest man, and greatly to be compassionated, however unaccountably eccentric. I narrated all I knew, and closed by suggesting the idea of letting him remain in as indulgent confinement as possible till something less harsh might be done—though indeed I hardly knew what. At all events, if nothing else could be decided upon, the alms-house must receive him. I then begged to have an interview.Being under no disgraceful charge, and quite serene and harmless in all his ways, they had permitted him freely to wander about the prison, and especially in the inclosed grass-platted yard thereof. And so I found him there, standing all alone in the quietest of the yards, his face towards a high wall, while all around, from the narrow slits of the jail windows, I thought I saw peering out upon him the eyes of murderers and thieves."Bartleby!""I know you," he said, without looking round,—"and I want nothing to say to you.""It was not I that brought you here, Bartleby," said I, keenly pained at his implied suspicion. "And to you, this should not be so vile a place. Nothing reproachful attaches to you by being here. And see, it is not so sad a place as one might think. Look, there is the sky, and here is the grass.""I know where I am," he replied, but would say nothing more, and so I left him.As I entered the corridor again, a broad meat-like man, in an apron, accosted me, and jerking his thumb over his shoulder said—"Is that your friend?""Yes.""Does he want to starve? If he does, let him live on the prison fare, that's all.""Who are you?" asked I, not knowing what to make of such an unofficially speaking person in such a place."I am the grub-man. Such gentlemen as have friends here, hire me to provide them with something good to eat.""Is this so?" said I, turning to the turnkey.He said it was."Well then," said I, slipping some silver into the grub-man's hands (for so they called him). "I want you to give particular attention to my friend there; let him have the best dinner you can get. And you must be as polite to him as possible.""Introduce me, will you?" said the grub-man, looking at me with an expression which seem to say he was all impatience for an opportunity to give a specimen of his breeding.Thinking it would prove of benefit to the scrivener, I acquiesced; and asking the grub-man his name, went up with him to Bartleby."Bartleby, this is Mr. Cutlets; you will find him very useful to you.""Your sarvant, sir, your sarvant," said the grub-man, making a low salutation behind his apron. "Hope you find it pleasant here, sir;—spacious grounds—cool apartments, sir—hope you'll stay with us some time—try to make it agreeable. May Mrs. Cutlets and I have the pleasure of your company to dinner, sir, in Mrs. Cutlets' private room?""I prefer not to dine to-day," said Bartleby, turning away. "It would disagree with me; I am unused to dinners." So saying he slowly moved to the other side of the inclosure, and took up a position fronting the dead-wall."How's this?" said the grub-man, addressing me with a stare of astonishment. "He's odd, aint he?""I think he is a little deranged," said I, sadly."Deranged? deranged is it? Well now, upon my word, I thought that friend of yourn was a gentleman forger; they are always pale and genteel-like, them forgers. I can't pity'em—can't help it, sir. Did you know Monroe Edwards?" he added touchingly, and paused. Then, laying his hand pityingly on my shoulder, sighed, "he died of consumption at Sing-Sing. So you weren't acquainted with Monroe?""No, I was never socially acquainted with any forgers. But I cannot stop longer. Look to my friend yonder. You will not lose by it. I will see you again."Some few days after this, I again obtained admission to the Tombs, and went through the corridors in quest of Bartleby; but without finding him."I saw him coming from his cell not long ago," said a turnkey, "may be he's gone to loiter in the yards."So I went in that direction."Are you looking for the silent man?" said another turnkey passing me. "Yonder he lies—sleeping in the yard there. 'Tis not twenty minutes since I saw him lie down."The yard was entirely quiet. It was not accessible to the common prisoners. The surrounding walls, of amazing thickness, kept off all sounds behind them. The Egyptian character of the masonry weighed upon me with its gloom. But a soft imprisoned turf grew under foot. The heart of the eternal pyramids, it seemed, wherein, by some strange magic, through the clefts, grass-seed, dropped by birds, had sprung.Strangely huddled at the base of the wall, his knees drawn up, and lying on his side, his head touching the cold stones, I saw the wasted Bartleby. But nothing stirred. I paused; then went close up to him; stooped over, and saw that his dim eyes were open; otherwise he seemed profoundly sleeping. Something prompted me to touch him. I felt his hand, when a tingling shiver ran up my arm and down my spine to my feet.The round face of the grub-man peered upon me now. "His dinner is ready. Won't he dine to-day, either? Or does he live without dining?""Lives without dining," said I, and closed his eyes."Eh!—He's asleep, aint he?""With kings and counselors," murmured I.* * * * * * * *There would seem little need for proceeding further in this history. Imagination will readily supply the meager recital of poor Bartleby's interment. But ere parting with the reader, let me say, that if this little narrative has sufficiently interested him, to awaken curiosity as to who Bartleby was, and what manner of life he led prior to the present narrator's making his acquaintance, I can only reply, that in such curiosity I fully share, but am wholly unable to gratify it. Yet here I hardly know whether I should divulge one little item of rumor, which came to my ear a few months after the scrivener's decease. Upon what basis it rested, I could never ascertain; and hence, how true it is I cannot now tell. But inasmuch as this vague report has not been without certain strange suggestive interest to me, however sad, it may prove the same with some others; and so I will briefly mention it. The report was this: that Bartleby had been a subordinate clerk in the Dead Letter Office at Washington, from which he had been suddenly removed by a change in the administration. When I think over this rumor, I cannot adequately express the emotions which seize me. Dead letters! does it not sound like dead men? Conceive a man by nature and misfortune prone to a pallid hopelessness, can any business seem more fitted to heighten it than that of continually handling these dead letters, and assorting them for the flames? For by the cart-load they are annually burned. Sometimes from out the folded paper the pale clerk takes a ring:—the finger it was meant for, perhaps, moulders in the grave; a bank-note sent in swiftest charity:—he whom it would relieve, nor eats nor hungers any more; pardon for those who died despairing; hope for those who died unhoping; good tidings for those who died stifled by unrelieved calamities. On errands of life, these letters speed to death.Ah Bartleby! Ah humanity! End of Project Gutenberg's Bartleby, The Scrivener, by Herman Melville*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARTLEBY, THE SCRIVENER ***This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net 
  8. 康德:什么是启蒙运动?
    2011/04/14 | 阅读: 5338
    本文选自康德《历史理性批判文集》,何兆武译,北京商务印书馆1991。  简介:康德是18世纪启蒙运动集之大成者,其“批判哲学”奠定了现代哲学的基础,划定科学、道德与美学的界限。本文尝试回答何谓启蒙,并说明启蒙与“公开使用自由”(即言论自由、学术自由)的关联。  启蒙就是人从他自己造成的未成年状态中走出。未成年状态就是没有他人的指导就不能使用自己的知性。要有勇气运用你自己的理智!这就是启蒙运动的口号。  启蒙运动就是人类脱离自己所加之于自己的不成熟状态,不成熟状态就是不经别人的引导,就对运用自己的理智无能为力。当其原因不在于缺乏理智,而在于不经别人的引导就缺乏勇气与决心去加以运用时,那么这种不成熟状态就是自己所加之于自己的了。Sapere aude!①要有勇气运用你自己的理智!这就是启蒙运动②的口号。  懒惰和怯懦乃是何以有如此大量的人,当大自然早己把他们从外界的引导之下释放出来以后(naturaliter maiorennes)③时,却仍然愿意终身处于不成熟状态之中,以及别人何以那么轻而易举地就俨然以他们的保护人自居的原因所在。处于不成熟状态是那么安逸。如果我有一部书能替我有理解,有一位牧师能替我有良心,有一位医生能替我规定食谱,等等;那么我自己就用不着操心了。只要能对我合算,我就无需去思想:自有别人会替我去做这类伤脑筋的事。  绝大部分的人(其中包括全部的女性)都把步入成熟状态认为除了是非常之艰辛而外并且还是非常之危险的;这一点老早就被每一个一片好心在从事监护他们的保护人关注到了。保护人首先是使他们的牲口愚蠢,并且小心提防着这些温驯的畜牲不要竟敢冒险从锁着他们的摇车里面迈出一步;然后就向他们指出他们企图单独行走时会威胁他们的那种危险。可是这种危险实际上并不那么大,因为他们跌过几交之后就终于能学会走路的;然而只要有过一次这类事例,就会使人心惊胆战并且往往吓得完全不敢再去尝试了。  任何一个个人要从几乎已经成为自己天性的那种不成熟状态之中奋斗出来,都是很艰难的。他甚至于已经爱好它了,并且确实暂时还不能运用他自己的理智,因为人们从来都不允许他去做这种尝试。条例和公式这类他那天分的合理运用、或者不如说误用的机械产物,就是对终古长存的不成熟状态的一副脚梏。谁要是抛开它,也就不过是在极狭窄的沟渠上做了一次不可靠的跳跃而己,因为他并不习惯于这类自由的运动。因此就只有很少数的人才能通过自己精神的奋斗而摆脱不成熟的状态,并且从而迈出切实的步伐来。  然而公众要启蒙自己,却是很可能的;只要允许他们自由,这还确实几乎是无可避免的。因为哪怕是在为广大人群所设立的保护者们中间,也总会发见一些有独立思想的人;他们自己在抛却了不成熟状态的羁绊之后,就会传播合理地估计自己的价值以及每个人的本分就在于思想其自身的那种精神。这里面特别值得注意的是:公众本来是被他们套上了这种羁绊的,但当他们的保护者(其本身是不可能有任何启蒙的)中竟有一些人鼓动他们的时候,此后却强迫保护者们自身也处于其中了;种下偏见是那么有害,因为他们终于报复了本来是他们的教唆者或者是他们教唆者的先行者的那些人。因而公众只能是很缓慢地获得启蒙。通过一场革命或许很可以实现推翻个人专制以及贪婪心和权势欲的压迫,但却绝不能实现思想方式的真正改革;而新的偏见也正如旧的一样,将会成为驾驭缺少思想的广大人群的圈套。  然而,这一启蒙运动除了自由而外并不需要任何别的东西,而且还确乎是一切可以称之为自由的东西之中最无害的东西,那就是在一切事情上都有公开运用自己理性的自由。④可是我却听到从四面八方都发出这样的叫喊:不许争辩!军官说:不许争辩,只许操练!税吏说:不许争辩,只许纳税。神甫说:不许争辩,只许信仰。(举世只有一位君主⑤说:可以争辩,随便争多少,随便争什么,但是要听话!君主指普鲁士腓德烈大王)到处都有对自由的限制。  然则,哪些限制是有碍启蒙的,哪些不是,反而是足以促进它的呢?--我回答说:必须永远有公开运用自己理性的自由,并且唯有它才能带来人类的启蒙。私下运用自己的理性往往会被限制得很狭隘,虽则不致因此而特别妨碍启蒙运动的进步。而我所理解的对自己理性的公开运用,则是指任何人作为学者在全部听众面前所能做的那种运用。一个人在其所受任的一定公职岗位或者职务上所能运用的自己的理性,我就称之为私下的运用。  就涉及共同体利益的许多事物而言,则我们必须有一定的机器,共同体的一些成员必须靠它来保持纯粹的消极态度,以便他们由于一种人为的一致性而由政府引向公共的目的,或者至少也是防止破坏这一目的。在这上面确实是不容许有争辩的;而是人们必须服从。但是就该机器的这一部分同时也作为整个共同体的,乃至于作为世界公民社会的成员而论,从而也就是以一个学者的资格通过写作面向严格意义上的公众时,则他是绝对可以争辩的,而不致因此就有损于他作为一个消极的成员所从事的那种事业。因此,一个服役的军官在接受他的上级交下某项命令肘,竟抗声争辩这项命令的合目的性或者有用性,那就会非常坏事;他必须服从。但是他作为学者而对军事业务上的错误进行评论并把它提交给公众来作判断时,就不能公开地加以禁止了。公民不能拒绝缴纳规定于他的税额;对所加给他的这类赋税惹事生非地擅行责难,甚至可以当作诽谤(这可能引起普遍的反抗)而加以惩处。然而这同一个人作为一个学者公开发表自己的见解,抗议这种课税的不适宜与不正当不一样,他的行动并没有违背公民的义务。同样地,一个牧师也有义务按照他所服务的那个教会的教义向他的教义问答班上的学生们和他的会众们作报告,因为他是根据这一条件才被批准的。但是作为一个学者,他却有充分自由、甚至于有责任,把他经过深思熟虑有关那种教义的缺点的全部善意的意见以及关于更好地组织宗教团体和教会团体的建议传达给公众。这里面并没有任何可以给他的良心增添负担的东西。因为他把作为一个教会工作者由于自己职务的关系而讲授的东西,当作是某种他自己并没有自由的权力可以按照自己的心意进行讲授的东西;他是受命根据别人的指示并以别人的名义选行讲述的。他将要说:我们的教会教导这些或那些;这里就是他们所引用的论据。于是,他就从他自己不会以完全的信服而赞同、虽则他很可以使自己负责进行宣讲的那些条文中--因为并非是完全不可能其中也隐藏着真理,而且无论如何至少其中不会发见有任何与内心宗教相违背的东西,--为他的听众引绎出全部的实用价值来。因为如果他相信其中可以发见任何与内心宗教相违背的东西,那么他就不能根据良心而尽自己的职务了,他就必须辞职。一个就任的宣教师之向他的会众运用自己的理性,纯粹是一种私下的运用;因为那往往只是一种家庭式的聚会,不管是多大的聚会;而在这方面他作为一个牧师是并不自由的,而且也不能是自由的,因为他是在传达别人的委托。反之,作为一个学者通过自己的著作而向真正的公众亦即向全世界讲话时,则牧师在公开运用他的理性上便享有无限的自由可以使用他自己的理性,并以他自己本人的名义发言。因为人民(在精神事务上)的保护者而其本身居然也不成熟,那便可以归结为一种荒谬性,一种永世长存的荒谬性了。  然则一种牧师团体、一种教会会议或者一种可敬的教门法院(就象他们在荷兰人中间所自称的那样),是不是有权宣誓他们自己之间对某种不变的教义负有义务,以便对其每一个成员并且由此也就是对全体人民进行永不中辍的监护,甚至于使之永恒化呢?我要说:这是完全不可能的。这样一项向人类永远封锁住了任何进一步启蒙的契约乃是绝对无效的,哪怕它被最高权力、被国会和最庄严的和平条约所确认。一个时代决不能使自己负有义务并从而发誓,要把后来的时代置于一种决没有可能扩大自己的(尤其是十分迫切的)认识、清除错误以及一般地在启蒙中继续进步的状态之中。这会是一种违反人性的犯罪行为,人性本来的天职恰好就在于这种进步;因此后世就完全有权拒绝这种以毫无根据而且是犯罪的方式所采取的规定。  凡是一个民族可以总结为法律的任何东西,其试金石都在于这样一个问题:一个民族是不是可以把这样一种法律加之于其自身?它可能在一个有限的短时期之内就好像是在期待着另一种更好的似的,为的是好实行一种制度,使得每一个公民而尤其是牧师都能有自由以学者的身份公开地,也就是通过著作,对现行组织的缺点发表自己的言论。这种新实行的制度将要一直延续下去,直到对这类事情性质的洞见已经是那么公开地到来并且得到了证实,以致于通过他们联合(即使是并不一致)的呼声而可以向王位提出建议,以便对这一依据他们更好的洞见的概念而结合成另一种已经改变了的宗教组织加以保护,而又不致于妨碍那些仍愿保留在旧组织之中的人们。但是统一成一个固定不变的、没有人能够(哪怕在一个人的整个一生中)公开加以怀疑的宗教体制,从而也就犹如消灭了人类朝着改善前进的整整一个时代那样,并由此给后代造成损害,使得他们毫无收获,--这却是绝对不能容许的。一个人确实可以为了他本人并且也只是在一段时间之内,推迟对自己有义务加以认识的事物的启蒙;然而径行放弃它,那就无论是对他本人,而更其是对于后代,都可以说是违反而且践踏人类的神圣权利⑥了。  而人民对于他们本身都不能规定的事,一个君主就更加不可以对他的人民规定了;因为他的立法威望全靠他把全体人民的意志结合为他自己的意志。只要他注意使一切真正的或号称的改善都与公民秩序结合在一起,那么此外他就可以把他的臣民发觉对自己灵魂得教所必须做的事情留给他们自己去做;这与他无关,虽则他必须防范任何人以强力妨碍别人根据自己的全部才能去做出这种决定并促进这种得救。如果他干预这种事,要以政府的监督来评判他的臣民借以亮明他们自己的见识的那些作品;以及如他凭自己的最高观点来这样做,而使自己受到"Caesar non estt supra grammaticos"⑦(凯撒并不高于文法学家)的这种责难;那就会有损于他的威严。如果他把自己的最高权力降低到竟至去支持自己国内的一些暴君对他其余的臣民实行精神专制主义的时候,那就更加每况愈下了。  如果现在有人问:"我们目前是不是生活在一个启蒙了的时代?"那么回答就是:"并不是,但确实是在一个启蒙运动的时代"。⑧目前的情形是,要说人类总的说来已经处于,或者是仅仅说已经被置于,一种不需别人引导就能够在宗教的事情上确切地而又很好地使用自己的理智的状态了,则那里面还缺乏许多东西。可是现在领域已经对他们开放了,他们可以自由地在这上面工作了,而且对普遍启蒙的、或者说对摆脱自己所加给自己的不成熟状态的障碍也逐渐地减少了;关于这些我们都有着明确的信号。就这方面考虑,这个时代乃是启蒙的时代,或者说乃是腓德烈⑨的世纪。  一个不以如下说法为与自己不相称的国君:他认为自己的义务就是要在宗教事务方面决不对人们加以任何规定,而是让他们有充分的自由,但他又甚至谢绝宽容这个高傲的名称;这位国君本人就是启蒙了的⑩,并且配得上被天下后世满怀感激之情尊之为率先使得人类,至少从政权方面而言,脱离了不成熟状态,并使每个人在任何有关良心的事务上都能自由地运用自身所固有的理性。在他的治下,可敬的牧师们可以以学者的身份自由地并且公开地把自己在这里或那里偏离了既定教义的各种判断和见解都提供给全世界来检验,而又无损于自己的职责:至于另外那些不受任何职责约束的人,那就更加是如此了。这种自由精神也要向外扩展,甚至于扩展到必然会和误解了其自身的那种政权这一外部阻碍发生冲突的地步。因为它对这种政权树立了一个范例,即自由并不是一点也不关怀公共的安宁和共同体的团结一致的。只有当人们不再有意地想方设法要把人类保持在野蛮状态的时候,人类才会由于自己的努力而使自己从其中慢慢地走出来。  我把启蒙运动的重点,亦即人类摆脱他们所加之于其自身的不成熟状态,主要是放在宗教事务方面,因为我们的统治者在艺术和科学方面并没有向他们的臣民尽监护之责的兴趣;何况这一不成熟状态既是一切之中最有害的而又是最可耻的一种。但是,一个庇护艺术与科学的国家首领,他的思想方式就要更进一步了,他洞察到:即使是在他的立法方面,容许他的臣民公开运用他们自身的理性,公开向世上提出他们对于更好地编篡法律、甚至于是直言无讳地批评现行法律的各种见解,那也不会有危险的。在这方面,我们有着一个光辉的典范,我们所尊敬的这位君主(指普鲁士腓德烈大王)⑾就是没有别的君主能够超越的。  但是只有那位其本身是启蒙了的、不怕幽灵的而同时手中又掌握着训练精良的大量军队可以保障公共安宁的君主,才能够说出一个自由国家所不敢说的这种话:可以争辩,随便争多少,随便争什么;但是必须听话。这就标志着人间事务的一种可惊异的、不能意料的进程;正犹如当我们对它从整体上加以观察时,其中就几乎一切都是悖论那样。程度更大的公民自由仿佛是有利于人民精神的自由似的,然而它却设下了不可逾越的限度;反之,程度较小的公民自由却为每个人发挥自己的才能开辟了余地。因为当大自然在这种坚硬的外壳之下打开了为她所极为精心照料着的幼芽时,也就是要求思想自由的倾向与任务时,它也就要逐步地反作用于人民的心灵面貌(从而他们慢慢地就能掌握自由);并且终于还会反作用于政权原则,使之发见按照人的尊严--人并不仅仅是机器而已⑿--去看待人,也是有利于政权本身的。⒀  1784年9月30日,于普鲁士哥尼斯堡  本文选自康德《历史理性批判文集》,何兆武译,商务印书馆,1996年  注:  ①[要敢于认识!]语出罗马诗人贺拉斯(公元前65-8)《诗论》。——译注  ②按启蒙运动(Aufklarung)亦称“启蒙时代”或“理性时代”;这篇为当时的启蒙运动进行辩护的文章,发表在当时德国启蒙运动的主要刊物《柏林月刊》上。——译注  ③[由于自然方式而成熟]。——译注  ④ 此处“公开运用自己理性的自由”即指言论自由。康德在这个问题上曾和当时普鲁士官方的检查制度发生冲突。——译注  ⑤指普鲁士腓德烈大王(FrederickⅡ,der Grosse,1740-1786)。——译注  ⑥按“权利”一词原文为Recht;此词相当于法文的droit,英文的right,中文的“权利”、“权”、“法律”、“法”或“正义”。一般或译作“法”,下同。——译注  ⑦[凯撒并不高于文法学家]按,此处这句话可能是针对传说中普鲁士的腓德烈大王回答伏尔泰(Voltaire, 1718-1778)的一句话:“凯撒高于文法学家。”又,传说神圣罗马帝国皇帝西吉斯蒙(Sigismund,1411-1437)在 1414年的康斯坦司会议上说过:“我是罗马皇帝并且高于文法学家。”——译注  ⑧康德《纯粹理性批判》第1版序言:“我们的时代特别是一个批判的时代,一切事物都必须接受批判。”——译注  ⑨指普鲁士腓德烈大王。——译注  ⑩“启蒙了的”即“开明的”。——译注  ⑾指普鲁士腓德烈大王。——译注  ⑿“人并不仅仅是机器而已”这一命题为针对拉梅特利(Julien Offray de La Mettrie,1709-1751)《人是机器》 (1748年)的反题。——译注  ⒀今天我在9月13日的《布兴每周通讯》(布兴,Anton Friedrich Buching,1724-1793,地理学家,格廷根大学教授,当时主编《地图、地理、统计与历史新书每周通讯》。——译注)上读到本月30日《柏林月刊》的预告,其中介绍了门德尔松先生(Moses Mendelsohn,1726-1786,德国启蒙运动哲学家,《论“什么叫作启蒙运动”这一问题》一文刊载于《柏林月刊》1784年第4卷第9期,康德本文刊载于该刊同年同卷第12期。康德撰写本文时尚未读到门德尔松的文章,所以只在本文末尾附加了这条注释。——译注)对于本问题的答复。我手头尚未收到该刊,否则就会扣发本文了。现在本文就只在于检验一下偶然性究竟在多大程度上能带来两个人的思想一致。 
  9. 吕正惠:魯迅的成就
    2011/05/03 | 阅读: 2438
    魯迅公認是中國現代文學最偉大的作家,具有廣泛的國際聲譽。但是,要向台灣讀者介紹魯迅的成就卻異常的艱難,他的作品在台灣遭到嚴厲禁讀長達三十七年之久。對台灣文化界來說,魯迅目前還是一個頗為陌生的領域,沒有什麼可以談論的基礎。      台灣文學界所謂的專家,主要受夏志清影響,對魯迅還有一種難以破除的偏見。他們從「形式」著眼,認為魯迅只寫了兩本短篇小說集,也不過就二十五篇,一部長篇也沒有;此外還有一本散文集《朝花夕拾》、一本散文詩集《野草》,就說這些作品裡有不少精品、傑作,哪能就算是大作家呢?何況還要稱他「偉大」或「巨人」?這不過都是共產黨的造神運動的成果罷了。在他們眼中,魯迅的十四本雜文集根本不算什麼。      大陸有一種知識分子恰好有相反的看法。他們認為,是共產黨利用了魯迅在文化界的廣泛聲譽,並且在解釋上把魯迅狹窄化了。魯迅的精神遠遠超過共產黨的教條,而且可以反過來反對共產黨的教條。      對我的魯迅觀產生重大衝擊的,還有來自日本學者的觀點。從竹內好以降的魯迅專家,包括丸山昇、木山英雄、伊藤虎丸、丸尾常喜等人,談起魯迅來,幾乎是畢恭畢敬,好像面對一位現代的東方聖人。      那麼,要怎麼樣說明魯迅作為一個作家的獨特品質呢?我想先從自己的閱讀經驗談起。1970年代,我曾偷偷影印了一本相當份量的魯迅雜文選集,卻並沒有帶來多少閱讀的樂趣,有一些篇章還似懂非懂。九○年代初我買到魯迅全集,不久之後,我陷入一種精神困境中,主要因為我的政治立場在台灣成為絕對少數。這時候,我才發現魯迅的作品成為我最大的安慰之一。魯迅的某些作品充滿了絕望,讀的時候引發自己強烈的共鳴。這我早已很清楚,因為魯迅的陰暗面是眾所公認的。然而,奇怪的是,這樣的文學並不導致全然的悲觀,並不使我喪氣,以至於失去了鬥志。相反,閱讀時感到一種絕望的快感,讀了以後卻能慢慢的堅韌起來。這是一種非常奇異的感受。你很難想像,「絕望之為虛妄,正與希望相同」這樣的句子會產生啟示作用,讓你更勇敢的面對現實。我認為,從活著的人的角度來看,魯迅的作品讓我們領會到,不論面對如何的艱難,你都不可以自欺,以為自己已忍受不了,沒那麼回事。說自己忍受不了,那是弱者的行為。汪暉一本論魯迅的專書,書名叫《反抗絕望》,這書名起得很好,我以為,就人生態度而言,「反抗絕望」正是魯迅精神對人的啟示之處。      以上是就個人的命運而言,但魯迅絕不只是關心個人命運的作家。魯迅去世的時候,就被稱為「民族魂」,他是中國面對亡國之禍時最堅韌的戰士。這看起來很奇怪,最悲觀的作家怎麼會成為最堅韌的戰士?      讀魯迅的小說,開始你會感到陰冷。譬如祥林嫂,那麼一個健康而勤快的農婦,怎麼會在習俗的偏見與眾人的冷酷之中淪為乞丐,最後死得不明不白。在〈藥〉裡,一個愛國志士為國犧牲的鮮血,卻被患肺癆病的人蘸到饅頭上拿來當祕方吃。一個農村無產者的阿Q,其實是很有勞動能力的,卻在眾人的藐視和自己的自欺之中莫名其妙的成為別人的替死鬼。看起來中國社會已完全缺乏人性,只會把活活的人變成殭屍,連一點「生」的氣息都沒有。      魯迅就像其他新文化運動的領導人一樣,不憚以最犀利的筆觸揭發中國文化的陰冷而缺乏人性的一面。但魯迅卻還是一個最熾熱的愛國者,這看起來是相當矛盾的。      如果拿胡適和周作人來跟魯迅比,就可以看出魯迅的偉大。胡適極其單純的嚮往西方文化(特別是美國文化)的一切,認為只要承認自己一切不如人,只要好好的跟人家學習,中國就有救。周作人跟魯迅一樣,對中國傳統社會徹底絕望,以至於完全喪失了民族自信心,最後竟然不認為抵抗會產生什麼作用,寧可當侵略者的順民而不肯有一絲一毫的自我犧牲。      魯迅還有一點跟許多愛國之士非常不一樣,他很少批評外國侵略者,而只批評自己的民族。並不是說,他絲毫不具備對侵略者的痛恨,這一點他絲毫不弱於人。但民族的恥辱感更讓他痛心。他似乎認為,與其痛恨別人,不如痛恨自己──與其痛恨常常欺凌自己的強者,不如痛恨自己為什麼始終是「孱頭」、「歪種」。魯迅痛恨自己民族的不長進,具有一種熱騰騰的血氣,他知道,只有這種血氣凝結成一種百折不回的鬥志,中國才能找到重生之道。只會欣羨人家,只會藐視自己,最後就是自輕自賤,向強者低頭。      魯迅勸中國青年,「要少──或者竟不──看中國書」,「少看中國書,其結果不過不能作文而已。但現在青年最要緊的是『行』而不是『言』。只要是活人,不能作文算什麼大不了的事。」在最惡劣的環境下,勇敢的面對現實,確確實實的「活」著,不自欺,魯迅認為是頭等大事。只怪罪別人欺凌自己,或者一直扛著祖宗的神主牌來自我炫耀,自我滿足,都是標準的阿Q,不是自救之道。      魯迅同時倡導「拿來主義」,外國的一切東西都可以拿過來,這不是說,外國東西一切都好,拿來就用,而是「要或使用,或存放,或毀滅」,要使自己成為這些東西的「新主人」,而不是成為這些外國東西的奴隸,什麼都好,什麼都跟。要「沉著、勇猛,有辨別,不自私」,這樣才能成為外國東西的「新主人」,也才能使自己成為「新人」。      簡單的說,魯迅既不要中國青年成為祖宗的奴隸,也不要中國青年成為外國東西的奴隸。一個民族跌到了深淵,如果不能勇敢的站立起來,再怎麼祈求祖宗的保佑,再怎麼痛罵侵略者的沒有人性,都是沒有用的。一切只能靠自己。這就是魯迅的血氣,因此他不憚於以最嚴苛的態度自我批評,他的自我批評絕不是自我輕賤,為的是拜倒於外國侵略者的腳下,像周作人那樣;或者像現在某些中國知識分子一樣,竟然認為中國只有讓外國徹底殖民,才能現代化。      就因為看到了這一點,中國人才會說,魯迅一身沒有媚骨,或者魯迅一身都是傲骨。是這種傲骨,使得中國人能夠從萬劫不復中重生。縱觀中國現代文學,魯迅這種精神對中國青年起了最大的啟示作用,而且沒人能夠跟他比肩,因此他成為中國現代文學唯一的宗師。      。         戰敗的日本人驚異於中國人終於「站起來了」,才恍然醒悟魯迅的偉大。魯迅表面強烈的自我批判精神,其實正是對西方文明最堅強的抵抗,他的拿來主義最終證明,中國可以找到一條特異的自救之道。相反的,日本人表面上是西方的模範生,最終只不過成為西方的模仿品,連它的「大東亞共榮圈」,也不過是西方殖民帝國主義拙劣的二等貨。最令人不堪的是,它竟成了它最主要的敵人美國在亞洲的伙伴,成為美國在亞洲的「大管家」。「脫亞入歐」的結果是,日本成為美國最重要的伙伴,但誰都知道,誰才是真正的主人。      魯迅坎坷的一生也是他始終艱苦奮鬥的一生,他的痛苦與他的勇於戰鬥,終於證明了他不凡的智慧。中國終於重新站立於世界之中,他有一份不容抹煞的貢獻,這就是他的偉大成就之一。      但魯迅也絕不只是一個狹隘的民族主義者,他一生的許多行為和全部作品都可以作為證明。在他決心從事於文學之初,他從翻譯外國文學作品起步。他翻譯的重點是東歐弱小民族的文學,而不是居於世界文學潮流之首的西歐文學。一方面,他認為,同屬被壓迫、被侵略的民族,它們的文學才跟中國有切身的關係,一方面他廣泛同情世界上所有被壓迫民族的民眾。      弱國民族主義的基礎是,在帝國主義的侵略下,絕大部分弱小的民眾都陷入深淵之中,只有少數掌握政治、經濟大權的人才可能跟侵略者合作而從中奪取更大利益,這一點魯迅是非常清楚的。魯迅在小說中不論把中國的農民描寫得多麼愚昧,卻永遠不失同情之心。就像那個被他從頭到尾嘲笑的阿Q,因為他始終被人所欺凌,魯迅還是同情的。這篇小說翻譯成法文,羅曼.羅蘭(Romain Rolland, 1866-1944)讀了以後非常感動,因為羅曼.羅蘭領會到了魯迅對弱小者的憐憫。捷克的普實克(Jaroslav Prusek, 1906-1980)也能感受到魯迅作品中的這種情懷,不久就譯成了捷克文出版。當他跟魯迅談到版稅時,魯迅回答,人家翻譯他的作品,他向來是不拿版稅的。魯迅的文學事業是全世界性的,是屬於被侵略民族的人民大眾共同攜手反抗帝國主義侵略者這一大事業中的一環,這一點魯迅也是很清楚的。      西方近代文明的輝煌成就是不容否認的,但西方國家挾帶著這種文明的力量,肆意侵占人家的土地(最高紀錄是地球陸地的83%)、奴隸人家的民眾、掠奪人家的資源,由此所造成的有史以來人類最大的災難,這一點,西方國家從來不肯承認,即使西方開明、進步的知識分子,也沒有多少人敢於正視。當我們談論世界近、現代文學,從西方的觀點談論它的成就,或者從非西方觀點來談論它的成就,其結果是完全不一樣的。當西方國家開始向世界各地進行掠奪時,世界各地的民眾從來就沒有停止反抗過,而反抗行動中就包含了反抗的文學。      如果我們把眼光放在西方近代資本主義帝國主義興起後,全世界的民眾如何反抗他們、這些反抗如何表現在文學上,那麼,我們就會有一種完全不同眼光的近、現代世界文學史。如果要撰寫這樣一部近、現代世界文學史,魯迅一定在其中據有顯著的地位。這是魯迅國際聲望的基礎,只是這種國際聲望遠遠不同於我們一直認同的、那種以西方為中心的國際聲望。作為近、現代被壓迫、被侵略民族反殖民抗爭的作家之一,魯迅的人格和他的作品贏得大家的尊敬和推崇,這才是魯迅最光輝的成就。      不少人說,魯迅的作品,除了一些小說、幾篇散文和《野草》這本散文詩集,其餘都沒有什麼藝術性。這是完全站在現代主義興起以後西方的美學觀點下所說的話。我記得大陸小說家王安憶曾說:魯迅的小說是嘲諷性的,而他嘲諷的常是典型,因此這種小說必然寫得很少,為了不重複,每種典型他都只寫一次。這話說得極精準。我們只要把《吶喊》、《徬徨》中的二十五篇小說好好體會,就會知道,魯迅沒有寫過兩篇相同的小說,而他的每一篇小說都值得我們細細分析(日本學者就是這麼做的)。從這裡就可以看出魯迅的苦心經營。      還有更多的人說,魯迅的雜文沒有藝術性,這純粹是誹謗,是為了抵消魯迅雜文的影響力而說的謊話。魯迅的雜文如果沒有藝術性,怎麼會影響千千萬萬的中國青年,而且至今還在產生影響。當我們不能用既成的美學規範來解釋這些作品的藝術性,而這些作品的影響力又那麼明顯,那是我們所據以判斷的美學標準有問題?還是什麼?我們只能說,魯迅創造了一種新文體,使得文學專家們拿著手中所有的衡量尺,卻一點也使不上力,這不反過來證明,魯迅具有極高的藝術獨創性嗎?      要表現一種前所未有的新的內容,就需要創造前所未有的新手段。魯迅站在全世界反殖民抗爭的大潮流中,為了戰鬥的需要,創造了人們至今尚不習慣的文學形式,但是影響力卻又那麼明顯,這不是魯迅的偉大成就,還能是什麼?
  10. 福柯:晚期哲学访谈(方塔纳)
    2011/05/10 | 阅读: 1921
    方塔纳:《性史》第一卷已经出版几年了。我知道,您最近出版的书使您碰上了一些问题和困难。我冒昧请您和我谈谈这些困难。  福柯:困难出自这项计划本身,而我的计划本来恰恰是要避免这些困难的。我预先计划通过几大卷的篇幅来开展我的工作,我告诉自己,现在该是我可以毫无困难地开始写作的时候了,我只须把自己脑子里的想法展开,并用经验研究来加以验证就行了。  写这些书的时候,我几乎厌倦透了:它们和早先那些书太相像了。对有些人来讲,写本书总是一次冒险,具体来说,是有可能完成不了。如果你事先就知道自己打算在什么地方结束,就会失去各个方面的经验,就是说,体验不到写一本也许完成不了的书时所感受到的冒险。所以我改变了整个计划:不再研究处在知识与权力边界上的性本性,而是努力再往回追得更远,找出对于主体本身来说,作为欲望的性本性的经验是如何构成的。我在努力指明这个问题域的时候,被迫去考察某些非常古老的拉丁文和希腊文的文本。这需要大量的准备,大量的努力,而我直到最后,也还留着许多不确定的东西和疑虑。  方塔纳:在您的书中,总有某种读者经常难以捕捉的“意向性”。《癫狂史》其实是关于被视为心理学的那门知识的构成过程史;《词与物》是关于人的科学的考古学;《规训与惩罚》写的则是对身体和灵魂的纪律的安排。而在您新近的书里,作为核心的似乎是您称之为“真理游戏”的东西。  福柯:我并不认为这些书和早先那些书之间有什么大的不同。当你写像这样的书的时候,非常想全盘改变自己的想法,让自己在结束的时候完全不同于开始时的自己。写完后,你会发现,其实相对来说,你已经改变得很少。你也许已经改变了自己的观点,但还是在原来的问题上纠缠不休,就是说,还是主体、真理和经验的构成之间的关系问题。我已经尝试分析了像癫狂、性本性和越轨这样的领域,是如何会进入某种真理游戏,以及通过人的实践或行为纳入真理游戏,主体自身是怎样受到影响的。这就是癫狂史和性史的问题所在。  方塔纳:这难道不会导向一种新的道德谱系学吗?  福柯:由于尼采的影响,这个词的特点是过于宏大,作为标题也很庄重,尽管如此,我还是要说是这样。  方塔纳:在1983年11月LeDébat上的一篇文章里,您结合古代(Antiquity),谈论了伦理取向的道德和准则取向的道德。这种区分是不是等同于希腊罗马道德和那些随基督教一起出现的道德之间的区分?  福柯:伴随着基督教的出现,古代的道德也发生了缓慢而逐步的转变,而后者本质上就是一种实践,一种自由的风格。当然,早就有某些行为规范,治理着每个个人的行为。但是,在古代,想要成为一个道德主体的意志,以及对于生存伦理的追寻,主要都是努力去维护自己的自由,赋予自己的生活以某种形式,在这种生活形式里,既可以认识自身,也可以被他人所认识,甚至连后代也会以它为仿效对象。  在我看来,在古代,道德经验和追求道德的意志,其核心就是一个人拿自己的生活当一件艺术品来精心制作,哪怕得遵守特定的集体标准。而在基督教时代,伴随着文本的宗教,上帝意志的观念,还有服从原则,道德逐渐呈现出由一整套准则所组成的形式(只有某些禁欲实践与个人自由的锻炼有着更紧密的联系)。  从古代到基督教时代,我们从一种本质上属于对个人伦理的追寻的道德,过渡到一种服从一整套规则的道德。如果说我对古代感兴趣,那是因为我有许许多多理由可以说,遵从一整套规则的道德观念现在正趋于消失,已经逐步消失。而与这种道德的消失相应的是,必然会是,对于一种生存美学的追寻。  方塔纳:近几年来积累起的有关身体、性本性、纪律的所有知识,是不是已经改善了我们和他人的关系,改善了我们在这个世界上的存在?  福柯:我总是在想,围绕许多事情——即使与政治选择无关——的讨论,围绕某些生存形式、行为规则等等的讨论,已经大大地增进了和身体的关系、男女两性之间的关系以及和性本性之间的关系。  方塔纳:所以说这种知识已经使我们能够更好地生活。  福柯:并不仅仅是在人们所想和所谈论的方面发生了变化,哲学话语、理论和批判方面也有许多变化:实际上,绝大多数这类分析并不是要告诉人们,他们应该成为怎样的人,应该做些什么,又应该相信什么、思考什么。相反,这些分析是要向我们揭示,到目前为止,各种社会机制是怎样成功地运作,各种形式的压制和约束是如何发挥作用,据我看,这样一来,在所有这些的启发下,人们就得自己决定和选择他们的生存。  方塔纳:五年前,您在法兰西学院的研讨班开始读哈耶克和米塞斯。人们就说:福柯打算通过反思自由主义,给我们写本关于政治的书。自由主义也似乎成了一条迂回的途径,可以使人们超越各种权力机制,重新发现个体。众所周知,您反对现象学式的主体和心理学式的主体。那时,人们开始谈论实践的主体。在某种程度上说,重读自由主义的意图是符合这种取向的。可以理解,人们三番五次地讲,在福柯的作品里没有主体。主体始终受到宰制,是各种规范技术和纪律施用的点,而从未成为自主的主体。  福柯:这里必须做个区分。首先,我的的确确相信,不存在自主的、奠基性的主体,不存在一种在任何地方都可以找到的普遍主体形式。对于这种主体观念,我非常怀疑,充满敌意。相反,我相信主体是通过臣服(subjection)的实践得以构成的,或者说,就像在古代,是以一种更具自主性的方式,通过解放和自由的实践得以构成的;当然,这些解放和自由的实践的基础,是一系列可以在文化环境中找到的规则、风格和习俗。  方塔纳:这就将我们引向了当代政治问题。时世艰难:在国际上,我们见证着雅尔塔会议的胁迫交易,见证着两大力量集团的对峙;而在国内,经济危机的恐惧萦绕心头。面对所有这一切,左派与右派之间并没有多少区别,有的只是风格的差异。那么,置身这样的现实和它的要求,一个人又如何能决定,是否存在其他可供替代的选择?  福柯:在我看来,你的问题固然正确,但同时也有些狭隘。应该把它分解成这样两类问题:首先,我们是必须接受还是拒绝?其次,如果我们拒绝,又能做些什么?拿第一个问题来讲,你必须毫不含糊地做出回答:我们绝不能接受,不管是战争留下的种种后果,还是欧洲某种战略态势的顽固存在,或者是半个欧洲都处在奴役之下的事实。  方塔纳:所以我们不能采取可以称之为黑格尔式的态度,依照现实呈现给我们的面貌全盘接受。但是还有另一个问题:“在政治中存在真理吗?”  福柯:我是这样的相信真理,以至不能设想存在不同的真理和不同的讲真理的方式。当然,你不能指望政府讲述真相,把真相和盘托出,只讲真话。相反,我们可以要求那些治理我们的人说出这样一种真话,就是关于他们的终极目标,关于他们各种战术的总体选择,关于他们的计划中的一系列具体要点:这就是被治理者的讲真话(一种自由言谈),被治理者可以而且必须借助自己的公民身份,从治理自己的那些人的所作所为,从他们行动的意义和所做出的决策出发,以知识的名义,以自己所拥有的经验的名义,对那些人提出质疑。  尽管如此,你还必须避免落入这样一个陷阱,治理者会在那里努力抓住知识分子,而知识分子又常常会陷入其中:“站到我们这边来,告诉我们你打算做什么。”你并不是非得回答这个问题不可。要对某个问题做出决定,就得了解我们无法得到的证据,分析我们无法分析的处境。这是一个陷阱。然而,作为被治理者,我们完全有权利追问有关真相的问题:“比如说,当你厌恶欧洲导弹计划,或是相反,你赞成这项计划;当你重建洛林钢铁企业;当你开始讨论民办教育的问题的时候,你正在做什么?”  方塔纳:在这个漫长的思索过程中,您乐意遇上哪一类读者,并向他们讲述这一真理?事实上,尽管还是有好作者,但好的读者是越来越少了。  福柯:别老想着“好”读者——我要说连读者也越来越少了。一个人而今再也不被人读了,这是完全可能的。你的第一本书是被人读了,因为你还不出名,因为人们不知道你是谁,这本书就在混乱之中被大家读了,这让我感到很舒服,你没有理由既写书,又为别人制定 如何读这本书的法律。唯一称得上这类法律的,是任何可能的阅读都行。如果一本书被人读了,但却是以多种不同的方式,我并不会专门为此烦恼。真正值得烦恼的是,你还在继续写书,但根本就不再被人读了,而且,以讹传讹,辗转贩卖,最后,这书变成了一个奇形怪状的东西。  这实际上是提出了这样一个问题:你是让自己卷入争辩,对这些讹见一一作答,并就此为读者制定阅读法律;还是让书就这么继续被歪曲下去,直到它成为自身的夸张讽刺?对于第一种,我感到厌憎,而对于第二种,我也抱有同样的态度。  话说回来,对于这个问题,还是有解决办法的:我唯一愿意看到的,是对出版社、对这些书本身,制定出这样的法律:禁止同一位作者的名字使用两次,同时允许匿名和笔名,这样就让每一本书都可以凭着自身而被人阅读了。对于许多书来说,是读者关于作者的知识决定了对书的理解程度。但除了屈指可数的几位巨匠,对于绝大多数的作者来说,这样的知识丝毫派不上用场,反而只是障碍。对于像我这样的人来说,我并不是一位杰出的作者,只是某个写书的人,如果我的书凭其自身被人阅读,带着可能有的任何错误和特点被人阅读,我想会更好一些。
  11. 小森阳一:《海边的卡夫卡》是病态小说
    2011/05/24 | 阅读: 3411
    今天很荣幸请到了日本著名文艺理论批评家小森阳一先生做客搜狐。今天我们要谈论的话题是小森阳一先生的新书《村上春树论——精读》。请小森阳一先生跟搜狐的网友打声招呼。  小森阳一:各位网友大家好,很高兴能够通过网络和大家交流。  主持人:村上春树的《海边的卡夫卡》是一本畅销世界的文学作品,在日本、中国和美国的发行量都极大,被《纽约时报》评为"2005年十佳图书",村上本人也因该书获捷克2006年卡夫卡奖。您2006年出版的著作《村上春树论--精读〈海边的卡夫卡〉》,对《海边的卡夫卡》进行了精细的文本分析,所持的立场是批判性的。在村上热潮中进行这样犀利的批判,有点浇凉水的味道,在日本的阅读界和评论界引起的反响如何呢?  小森阳一:关于我的这本《村上春树论——精读》,在日本得到的公开的书评其实很少。据出版社的编辑说,主要的原因是拜托别人写书评时一般都被拒绝了。也就是说,如果正面评价我这本书的话,将会与非常多的村上春树迷为敌,很多人在避免这种尴尬的局面。但是,有很多读者和村上春树迷通过网络、信件等方式,表达了对我这本书的认识和评价,并且他们还把这本书介绍给其他人阅读,这令我感到高兴。  主持人:最初促使您写这样一本专门针对村上春树,针对他的这本畅销世界的《海边的卡夫卡》的文学批评著作的原因是什么呢?  小森阳一:首先,在我看来很多读者对于这本《海边的卡夫卡》的接受方式存在某种问题,而且这种现象不仅局限于日本,在某种意义上是世界共通的。这是最初的主要原因。简单地说,在9.11事件之后,一些特别易于被读者简单接受的东西,隐含在这本小说里。  主持人:在《村上春树论》中,曾多次提到一个关键词,即"疗愈",据说该词在日本颇为流行,而《海边的卡夫卡》正满足了读者的"疗愈"渴求。如何理解这一现象呢?  小森阳一:进入20世纪以后,在日本大众文化各个领域,“疗愈”都成为特别重要的关键词,这种现象一直持续到2006年。对“疗愈”的渴求和得到“疗愈”满足这种感受,在我看来不是基于人的大脑皮质的感受,而是基于一种动物性的本能感受。因为动物世界,基本上是一个弱肉强食的世界,当遇到其它动物的时候,要么是攻击对方,要么是从对方的攻击中逃走,只有这两个选择。如果感到对方比自己强大的话,那么就会抱有恐惧心理转身逃走。反之,如果遇到比自己弱的动物,就会产生出愤怒的感情,怒气会演变成对对方的攻击。无论是这种恐惧心理还是愤怒心理,都是一种高度紧张的感情状态。这种恐怖或者发怒的感情消失之后的状态,实际上就是所谓的“疗愈”状态。  村上春树的《海边的卡夫卡》能给读者提供这种动物层次上的安心感,这种现象在日本特别明显。《海边的卡夫卡》这本书,作为能将紧张状态化为安心感的小说被阅读。也就是说不是用头脑去对紧张状态进行分析、思索和应对,而完全是通过动物的本能,让人得到松弛或安心感。在日本,包括玩具、音乐、影视明星甚至都被用“疗愈”来分类,这反之也能够证明,日本社会是处于高度紧张状态下的“攻击型”社会。这也正是9.11事件之后整个日本社会的现实。  主持人:那现在的日本这种状况有所改善吗?  小森阳一:安倍晋三首相辞职之后,状况得到了明显的改善。更多的国民开始懂得需要通过对事物因果关系进行合理化思考的方式,来消解这种紧张状态。主持人:有评论者认为这本著作挑战了大众心理需求和出版商业合谋运作下的一种单一化的阅读方式,指的就是这种寻求“疗愈”和救赎式的阅读吧?  小森阳一:完全是这样的,这也正是我写这本书的一个初衷。如果我这本书能够起到打破迄今为止的单一化的阅读方式、一元化的阅读模式的作用,那么,对我来说是特别荣幸的事情。  主持人:从20世纪90年代之后,中国陆续引进了村上的作品,在中国有很多村上春树小说的爱好者。那么《村上春树论》作为一本关于村上文学批判性的论著在中国出版,您希望读者能从中得到什么样的启示?  小森阳一:村上春树在日本流行是20世纪80年代,当时日本社会正在向消费型社会转变,这样的社会环境是村上春树文学之所以流行的非常重要的原因。当人类由生产主体向消费主体转化的时候,会发生什么样的现象呢?人的生存方式本来是通过劳动创造价值为主的,但是社会一旦变成消费社会以后,人就变成纯粹消费的人。变成消费型的人,也意味着失去通过使用语言去获得成长的机会。在生产型社会中,儿童总是能通过自己和大人的对比看到自己的不足,所以将会按照大人的方式努力成长。  而在消费型社会,人一旦变成消费主体,不论是孩子还是成人,只要拿着货币都能在市场上买到相应的商品,谁都可以成为消费者。只要持有货币,就可以简单完成向一个成熟消费主体的过渡。也就是说只要是有钱的话,谁都可以变成消费者。这会使人抱有这样的错觉,只要有钱自己就是万能的。但是这种自以为万能的幻想,在与现实的接触和碰撞中特别容易被摧毁,也容易受到挫折。  在村上春树的小说中,那些生活在都市里的所谓很酷的人物是通过什么表现的呢?比如喝过多少瓶啤酒,抽过多少支烟,或者用欣赏的音乐、饮用的名酒等等这些能够用货币交换来的东西,去表现人物的日常生活。在这样的生活方式中,内心脆弱的人,去寻找自己内心脆弱的理由,这也一直是村上春树小说的主题。在这个意义上,村上春树的小说在90年代之后的中国流行是很自然的。因为90年代之后的中国,也开始迅速向一个消费型社会过渡,一个不通过劳动、甚至不经过劳动阶段就可以持有货币消费的人群和阶层开始出现,这是村上小说在中国流行的主要原因。  村上春树小说在中国非常受欢迎,但是如果村上的读者能够去思考一下生产型的人和消费型的人之间到底有什么不同,反省一下什么才意味着人的真正的成长,我相信他们对村上春树的小说就会有完全不同的看法。我也希望这些读者能够意识到,用货币实现的东西,并不意味着你个人的能力。  主持人:您在书中将《海边的卡夫卡》细读为一本"处刑小说",如何理解这一说法呢?  小森阳一:最主要的理由是,这本小说的题目中出现了弗兰兹・卡夫卡的名字,而且弗兰兹・卡夫卡的小说《在流放地》在村上春树小说里被引用。《在流放地》这本小说描述的是一种特殊的行刑机器。这部特殊的机器,是把本来使用语言的法律判决,不是通过纸面文字的方式,而是把罪状用针刺到受刑者身上的方式,对受刑人实施处刑。  人类长期以来,通过语言来建构和维护的法变成通过暴力的方式实现,卡夫卡这本小说所描写的就是这样的过程和结果。在人类历史中,具有将人判决死刑权利人,都是一些特权者。在消费社会,因为所有的人都有一种自己是万能的错觉,所有的人都有将别人处刑的欲望。在9.11之后,整个世界发生了以暴制暴的连锁反应,在这种形势下,村上春树小说的读者通过村上小说的阅读,获得了一种俨然把最邪恶的象征杀死一样的错觉。所以《海边的卡夫卡》这篇小说有一种将潜在于人的意识中的暴力欲望煽动起来的结构。  主持人:你认为他的小说不积极,不健康?  小森阳一:简单地说这是一部病态的小说,是在一种病态的社会环境下产生的病态小说。  主持人:那就相当于激发人性中最暴力的一面。  小森阳一:虽然不是直接的煽动,但通过潜在的方式暗示或诱导,这点才是最危险的。主持人:在《村上春树论》一书中,透过文本分析,您的批判所指包括日本的历史认识问题、象天皇制、靖国神社参拜、历史教科书问题等等,好像涉及了大部分您一直以来思考和研究的政治、意识形态问题,如此多的问题都能和《海边的卡夫卡》的小说结构、意图等联系起来?  小森阳一:我认为是这样的。在《海边的卡夫卡》的这本小说中,是将上述的历史问题、象征天皇制等等问题作为细微的素材编织在小说中,并且对这些题材的涉及还是相当明显的。比如说在小说中有一块入口石,这块入口石在小说中被保存在神社,后来又被从神社搬了出来。主人公卡夫卡少年最后走进了死者的世界。在这个世界里主人公遇到了从日本军队里逃亡出来的士兵。这里明显提示的是,昭和天皇作为最高统帅者发动战争期间,为天皇而死的士兵作为英灵被祭祀在靖国神社,而从战争中逃亡出来的士兵就不会被视为英灵,所以只能在死者世界徘徊。可见关于战争、天皇制等等一系列问题,在小说里都有所暗示。  《海边的卡夫卡》在日本发表时,关于历史教科书问题以及随军慰安妇问题,在日本刚刚发生了意见分化的激烈论争。比如说《海边的卡夫卡》中出现了男性强奸女性的故事主题,这一点和当时的随军慰安妇问题是密切相关的。在小说里,把男性对女性的强奸归结为无奈之举,无形中也就等于将随军慰安妇问题归为无奈之举,这迎合了当时一部分日本人的心理。关于这个问题还可以回答的内容有很多,暂且到这里打住。  主持人:您说曾对村上春树在关注社会现实和历史语境方面抱有过很高的期待,但《海边的卡夫卡》却让您的期待落空了,而且从中看出了村上一个具有危险性的文学转向,这怎么解释呢?对于您的批判性的文本分析和论说,村上有过回应吗?  小森阳一:首先从第二个问题开始回答,就是关于我这本书,还没有得到村上春树本人的任何回应。  在90年代之所以我曾对村上春树抱有一定的期待,是因为他针对奥姆真理教徒制造的“地铁沙林事件”,写出了一部客观记述事件事实的《地下铁事件》。“地铁沙林事件”象征性展示出的,是对战争事实和历史问题没有彻底清算的日本,暴力通过一种怎样的方式沿承了下来。对日本军人在战争中的残暴行为没有通过语言的方式进行清算。这种结果才使暴力结构和倾向残留在日本社会之中,这也是我对“地铁沙林事件”的基本看法。  村上春树曾经在小说《奇鸟行状录》中,把当时在中国东北发生的诺门罕战役作为题材,写进小说。在我看来,如果能将《奇鸟行状录》与《地下铁事件》的创作意识和方法结合在一起,村上春树有可能对过去日本的战争采取正确的姿态来描述。但是七年之后,他在《海边的卡夫卡》中将人为制造和发动的暴力,特别在国家名义下发动的暴力作为人类世界无可奈何的事情加以描述,正是这种反差让我看到了他的文学转向。  主持人:将政治批判内化于学术著作中是您的一个重要研究方式,如在中国有译本发行的《日本近代国语批判》(吉林人民出版社,2003年)和《天皇的玉音放送》(三联书店,2004年),这本《村上春树论》也应该是这一方式的延伸吧?  小森阳一:完全是这样的。其实文学与政治并不是两回事,在我看来,使用语言来应对眼前暴力的主要方式就是文学。在某种意义上,文学也是体现政治的主要方式。举一个非常简单的例子,比如对布什使用的“反恐战争”这个口号,我认为特别有必要从文学的角度去解读。其实向布什建议使用“反恐战争”这个表达方式的,是一个商业市场的策划者。在这个说法之中,就隐藏着很多策略性修辞和概念的偷换。“反恐战争”中的“恐”指的是什么呢?其实指的是“恐怖分子”。但是对于“恐怖分子”采取正当的方法不是发动战争,而是将其逮捕。  主持人:既然谈到文学和政治,您觉得强势政治操纵国民的手段主要是语言的方式,《海边的卡夫卡》是不是也暗合了这种方式?  小森阳一:尤其是在美国的9.11事件之后,美国和日本都开始通过强势媒体沿着一个既定的方向去诱导国民。在这个意义上,正是那些受到了布什总统的欺骗人,再从村上春树的小说中得到所谓的“疗愈”。所以我希望从《海边的卡夫卡》中得到“疗愈”的读者去反省一下,自己是不是受到了布什的欺骗。  主持人:在刚刚结束的诺贝尔文学奖上,村上被提名,也是最大热门的人选,您觉得村上离诺贝尔文学奖有多远,有没有机会获得?  小森阳一:实际上村上春树获奖呼声最高的是在去年,当然今年也有很多报社和媒体准备在村上春树获得诺贝尔文学奖之后,希望我做出一些评论,但是结果他没有获奖,我觉得这个结果非常好。如果村上春树获得诺贝尔文学奖的话,批判村上春树的我可能就会成为所有文学爱好者的敌人。正是在村上春树没有获得诺贝尔文学奖的结果中,我看到了对于文学的良知和正常的感受性依然是存在的。  主持人:您有几重身份,您不仅是一位著名的文艺批评家,也是日本和东亚一位影响重大的公共知识分子,本着知识分子的良知和正以积极参与政治,抵制日本右翼政治。在中国读者和中国学界的心目中,您的"左翼知识分子"的形象是很鲜明的。作为批判者,在日本国内的处境应该是比较艰难的吧,现在情况是否有改善?  小森阳一:作为维护和平宪法的日本"九条会"的成员,我一直以各种方式从事社会活动,并且通过面向普通市民举行演讲,来积极宣传自己的主张。通过切实的努力,在近三年以来,情况有非常明显的改变。7月29号结束的日本国会参议院选举中自民党大败,这个政治结果也体现了日本国民对小泉政权以及安倍内阁的态度。在安倍执政时期,日本文部省的教科书审定中,曾经要求从教科书中删去第二次世界大战冲绳战役期间,日本军人命令岛民集体自杀的记述,但是在安倍下台之后的9月30日,冲绳11万市民集会游行,抗议从教科书上删去这样的记载。面对国民的声音,自民党政府也不得不采取具体措施来回应这种声音。可见,日本国内的政治环境也在发生变化,我希望通过自己的努力,在相当程度上阻止住日本社会右翼化的风潮。  主持人:您和中国学界的互动和沟通应该是比较频繁的,这次中国之行的主要任务,或者说主题是什么呢?  小森阳一:这次来主要是两个目的,一个是参加中国社科院举办的针对亚洲当前所面临的共通课题的学术讨论会,另外准备在清华大学做一次关于村上春树的演讲。当然今天来到聊天室,也与我这次来北京的目的相符,让更多的中国读者了解我对村上春树的认识,让更多的中国读者阅读这本书。明天在清华大学做演讲的时候,我将为读者签名,感兴趣的读者希望明天见。  主持人:您最喜欢的中国作家是哪一位?  小森阳一:当然是鲁迅。我最喜欢的日本作家大江健三郎同样也喜欢鲁迅。  主持人:最后一个问题,您的下一步学术研究计划是什么?  小森阳一:今年作为我最新的一本书,是一本合著的《难民》,这本书已经出来了。《难民》指得是那些处于法律保障之外的人群,由于各种各样的原因,没有受到法律的保护和保障。难民形成的主要原因当然是由于战争或民族纷争,但这两种原因之外,难民现象也是存在的。在竞争原理和市场原理的冲击下,由法来保证人存在的社会结构,在日本发生巨大的变化。比如在今年4月份就发生了这样事情,一名男子由于被取消了他的生活保障金而饿死,这位男性身患四种以上的疾病,但是仅仅是由于他持有汽车驾照,北九州市政府认为他具备生活能力,所以停发了对他生活保障金。日本国家或地区政府为了削减福利开支,单方面剥夺了一些弱者的生存权利。通过某种原因,人变成难民,这种现象是一种世界共通的问题。对于人与法的关系,今后将成为研究的一个主要课题。  主持人:谢谢小森阳一先生来到搜狐聊天室跟我们畅聊《村上春树论——精读》,让网友更加深刻的了解村上春树的作品。最后,我们希望您的《难民》早日在中国与读者见面。谢谢!  小森阳一:谢谢!
  12. 施鲁赫特:马克斯·韦伯与《新教伦理与资本主义精神》(对话)
    2011/06/11 | 阅读: 2070
    时间:2011年3月13日下午 地点:北京大学伟利楼德国研究中心   施鲁赫特教授(Wolfgang Schluchter)简介:1938年出生,在柏林自由大学获得博士学位,任曼海姆大学教授,后长期在德国海德堡大学任社会学教授(1976-2006),曾在德国、美国、意大利、新加坡、日本、香港等地大学以及南开大学客座讲学。施鲁赫特教授长期从事马克斯·韦伯研究,对韦伯的学术思想有精辟的理解和批判性的发展,世界上几乎所有韦伯的研究者均受惠于施鲁赫特教授的研究,被誉为天下韦伯第一专家。他的研究领域涉及社会学、历史学、宗教研究等领域,著述极丰,代表性著作有《现代理性主义的产生——韦伯关于西方发展史的分析》、《世界的祛魅——韦伯研究六论》、《宗教与生活:韦伯的文化与价值理论研究》、《宗教与生活:韦伯的宗教与统治社会学研究》、《韦伯关于儒教和道教的研究:评述与批判》等。 北京大学德国研究中心邀请施鲁赫特教授来京讲学,并2011年3月13日下午与北京大学、北京外国语大学、首都师范大学、北京航天工业大学和《中国图书评论》等机构的学者座谈。   潘璐:很高兴,我们读书会大家能够抽出时间来,今天又有一个难得的机会,请来海德堡大学的施鲁赫特教授跟我们座谈一次,北大德国研究中心请他来举办了一系列的讲座,我们这个学期一起读了韦伯的《新教伦理与资本主义精神》,所以我想今天就以这本书以核心谈一下,与韦伯专家做一次对话,并借此机会对我们共同关心的问题进行讨论。   施鲁赫特:我首先要讲的一点,《新教伦理与资本主义精神》不是一本书,首先这是两篇文章,在1904和1905年先后发表。这中间有一个的停顿,韦伯曾于1904年到美国参加世界博览会,他急于把第一篇文章在赴美之前赶出来,这就是为什么第一篇文章里有很多错误的原因。当时排字工在许多英文段落里排版出现了问题,最后成书时,尤其在脚注部分,错误很多。后来再版时,包括翻译版本,这些错误不断被重复。1920年,韦伯写第二稿时,有些错误他也没再改。第一篇文章里,他先提出问题,在第二篇文章,他试图解决问题。第一篇文章中韦伯沿袭了桑巴特的观点:桑巴特在他两卷本的《现代资本主义》里面也提出这个问题,人的哪些精神状态对于加强现代资本主义的某些发展,尤其是制度层面的发展,起到了决定性的作用。在文章一开始他写到,我目前不想关注现代资本主义的结构,我关注的就是人的这种精神的状态,精神怎样跟结构一起来构成一种新的经济形式。 在第一篇文章里,他强调即使没有资本主义形式,也可能存在资本主义精神。而反过来,即使没有资本主义精神,也可能会有资本主义形式。第一种情况发生在新英格兰,那里现有了这种精神,却还没有相应的形式;第二种情况发生在意大利,那里已有资本主义形式,但还没有现代资本主义精神。历史上的不同时代早已存在资本主义的萌芽,但新教精神加入以后,便促进资本主义的生产方式的发展。另外,韦伯在方法论上的兴趣点在于分析精神和形式之间的关系,并证明精神和形式之间不存在必然的因果关系,他把这种关系称为亲和力的关系。 在1904年底、1905年初撰写第二篇文章时,韦伯想要阐释基督教义的哪些前提发展成内心禁欲或者职业禁欲。这部分比较复杂,使韦伯深陷神学界的争论,因为他不是专家,对情况的复杂性并不是很了解,因此对问题的分析也不很透彻。他试图提出这样的论点,即宗教作为职业禁欲的基础。在第二篇文章的结尾处,韦伯给出一个晦暗的前景:以职业作为生活的意义,意义的重要性会渐渐丧失,甚至被工具化,这最终会导致意义的缺失,让人放弃个人的自由。   王炎:我有个问题,针对韦伯研究的方法。他研究精神与现实、或曰观念与历史的关系,基本上采用这样一种模式:选取一些著名的历史人物,像富兰克林、路德、加尔文或一些教士,引用他们著名的论断或言论,然后再做一些资本主义生产的案例分析,比如计件工资对天主教徒和新教徒不同的激励作用,或分析一些新教国家(如荷兰、美国)企业家与雇员的工作表现,最后把二者联系起来,以此证明新教伦理对现代资本主义形式的塑造,虽然很有启发性和创见,但这样研究方式在学理上是否有效?   施鲁赫特:再强调一下,我一开始指出了一点,《新教伦理与资本主义精神》不是一本书,而是两篇文章,两篇文章是有区别的。第一篇文章只是提出了问题,指出这个问题为什么存在,第二篇文章里面才给予解释,韦伯在给予解释的时候对当时经济的状况并没有做太多的关注,主要是关注宗教信仰及其对某些团体的生活方式的影响,以及他们如何在宗教信仰的影响下进行经济活动。第一篇文章里只提出了问题。他提到富兰克林,并不是把富兰克林作为一种解释性的例子,而只是把他拿出来跟福格相比较,指出他们两者的理念之间有什么不同。他只是把富兰克林作为一个形象的例子,比较形象的给我们展示有这么一个问题。     当然我们仍然可以问,新教教派的那些教义到底是不是对他们的生活方式产生了那么大的影响,与他们的经济行为是不是有因果的关系,从某种程度上来说,韦伯在这个论证中并没有把这种关系建构的那么严密,或者说实际的过程与他想象的不一样。对韦伯的论证,确实也有不少批评,一种说事情并不像韦伯说的那样,我们可以找到历史上的证据表明,那些教派里的情况和韦伯描述的不一样。    另一种批评说,韦伯认为禁欲是新教的特点,其实天主教、犹太教里也有,并不像韦伯说的,是新教专有的。第三种批评就像布里塔诺等人的批评,认为所谓的精神因素实际对经济的发展无关紧要,经济发展根本不需要精神这种东西。   王炎:这就是说,虽然韦伯做出了巨大的努力,我们仍面临知识上一个巨大的困难,就是如何证明观念与现实和历史之间的关系。这个问题长期困扰着知识界,像一个谜。这样一个艰巨的工作,韦伯尚未完成。   施鲁赫特:你刚才提到的这点很有意思。韦伯是想通过对于理念在历史中的有效性的研究来,给社会学的这种关于理念的研究做出一种示范的效果。在他的研究里面,韦伯并没有说教义是直接作用于信仰人群的,他指出,如果教众逐字逐句地接受这些教义、遵从这些教义的话,那他们根本没法活下去。因为信徒没法通过这些教义知道他在尘世生活结束之后是不是能够得到救赎,不管他们到底怎么做,他们也不会了解到他到底是不是会被救赎。他们不能忍受这种情况,就会寻找一个答案。他们就会向神职人员询问,怎么样让自己摆脱这种困境。这时候就会发生对原本的教义进行重新阐释的过程。这样,尘世中职业的成功就会被阐释成为一个能够获得救赎的信号,这个加强了人们对经济成功的兴趣。     所以,按照韦伯的观点,进行社会学研究的人,应该不仅仅关注所谓的抽象的教义本身,而应该关注当时给教徒看的一些书籍,比如怎样解救灵魂等等这样的书籍,在这样的书籍里会更多地找到他们想要的答案。实际上韦伯想用他的文章、他的研究作为一个给社会学、历史学研究的范例。所以,韦伯的这个研究,实际上对我们来说,它的意义也就是在于方法论上面,至于历史学上的论证,可能只有了解17世纪的学者才能够判断。   孙飞宇:我的问题是,如果我们想要理解马克斯.韦伯,我们要把他放在当时的文化传统、社会和政治背景里面理解这样一个问题,第一个问题,是什么能够让马克斯.韦伯在他的时代里面,来写这样一本书,讨论资本主义精神的起源、或者说讨论新教伦理与资本主义精神之间的关系?     我自己的理解,这里当然有很多的方面。比如首先有可能是他个人生活,他与父亲之间的关系,比如另外一个原因要回答在他那个时代资本主义精神危机的问题,马克斯.韦伯认为,只有通过这样一个回答,才有可能理解当时的时代精神危机,并且理解自我。等等,但是我想听一下施鲁赫特教授的回答。   施鲁赫特:您刚才提这个问题,回答起来有一定的难度,因为在分析之中,有好几条线索都要顾及到,一条是生平的线索,第二是时代的线索,有哪些重要的事件、当时的气氛如何,牵扯到德国、尤其是威廉时期的德国。还有另外一个线索,即当时科学和学术发展的线索,如果我们试图对韦伯的研究进行一个概括性的描述的话,既要把这些线索分开来看,又要避免用因果论的视角来把它们统合到一起,否则我们就会犯简单化的错误。     我举一个典型的简单化的例子,大家都知道阿图尔·米茨曼的《铁笼》(The Iron Cage)这本书,书的核心内容是韦伯跟他父亲以及父母之间的冲突,他为了保护母亲杀死了父亲,这使他心怀愧疚,健康恶化,而后他出于罪责感在研究工作中强调禁欲方面,又说打破禁欲要通过神秘的东西,然后这个神秘的东西又从某个女性产生,整本书都是以此为线索的,我认为这种阐释毫无道理,犯了简单化的错误。把韦伯的生平跟他的著作之间解释为一种因果关系,我觉得这就是一种简单化的做法。因为从科学研究的角度来看,我认为问题的提出并不完全是受个人因素影响的,而是更多跟他当时的时代、科学研究发展的状况相关,研究是为了用更好地方法解决问题,这和个人的生平之间只有间接的关系。即使在科学研究中个人的某些因素会起到一定的作用,但是我们来解答科学研究中的问题,答案正确与否,其衡量标准并不是我个人的问题是不是由此得到了解决。 韦伯生活的时代确实是一个文化悲观主义盛行的时代,当时人们的想象不是人类的、社会的发展会向更高、更好、更让人喜悦的目标前进,而是前途一片暗淡,最终可能是意义缺失,自由受到限制、甚至丧失自由。当时的时代精神很大程度上受到三个人物的影响,一个是马克思,在经济问题方面;一个是尼采,在道德问题方面,在某种程度上还有弗洛伊德,他把非理性渐渐引入了学术讨论之中。同样的还有帕雷托,在他的巨著里他把行为中的非理性因素和“经济人”的理性行为相对,把非理性的因素作为核心问题来讨论。所以当时是一个文化悲观主义和非理性大发现的时代,如果是强调或者是为理性进行辩护,其实是对当时文化悲观主义的批判、反驳的一种态度。从这点来看,韦伯既受到当时文化悲观主义时代精神的影响,他又是为理性来辩护的反潮流运动的一个追随者。   王炎:您提到为“理性”辩护,在中文里“理性”对应着两个英文词“rationality”和“reason”。我想澄清一下,您这里用“理性”对应的是哪个词的含义?   施鲁赫特:在德语中,也有两个词对应,一个是“合理性”(rationalitat), 一个是“理性”(vernunft),在德国历史上,合理性与理性有一个阶段通用,但是韦伯提出的理性是哲学范畴,对社会学来说,讨论的是合理性,是实践的过程。当然一直也有一个大家都在提的问题:韦伯区分的合理性不同的层面,如果能够把它合在一起的话,是不是最终会达到理性?这个有不同的答案。哈贝马斯有一篇文章《理性的同一性与它的不同声音》,人们可以会倾向于把韦伯说的不同的合理性——目的理性、价值理性、形式理性、物资理性、理论理性、实践理性等等,用哈贝马斯的话来解释,那就是理性不同的声音。这里面,每种内容可能都包含理性的成分,但是没有一个可以被称理性。但我认为,韦伯没有关注过他说的这些合理性跟理性之间有什么关系。他一直竭力强调的是自我决定的生活,这种生活应该是由内心的冲动来决定的,而不只是对外界环境的反应。自我决定,一方面意味着自主,一方面意味着自由,人需要自由,也需要某些条件才能在自由中生活,我们可以把韦伯整个的社会学称之为自由的社会学。    韦伯生活的时代,从政治体制上来讲跟英国和美国有区别,德国的政治制度是权威性的、受限制的,并不是一种民主结构的政治。人们为解放而斗争。解放从德文意义上来说,就是获得更多自由的过程。对韦伯来说,解放对于他自己所属的市民阶级也是一个很重要的题目,韦伯在当时帝国时代希望市民阶级能够执掌政权,而不是再受到封建的统治。另外,他很强调工人阶级应该有自主的权利,虽然他理解的并不是在社会主义的,而是在资本主义的框架下。作为社会力量工人阶级应该有自己的代表,比如工会。尤其在一战中,他看到受到伤害的并不是封建主,而是工人和所谓的小人物,因此他一直竭力争取,工人阶级在社会上、在一个政治秩序中要有自己的声音。     韦伯一直主张建立资本主义民主,这是他想象的国家形式。当时他生活的时代还是帝国时代,资本主义民主要通过斗争才能实现。如果要跟学生解释韦伯的政治倾向,可以引用他自己的一句话,他自己说“我是市民阶级的儿子。我为市民阶级的自由而战,这个自由应该得到实现。”他认为,在英国、美国,市民阶级要比在德国拥有更多的自由。     所以,如果我们面对一个学者的这么多的研究成果,我们既要把不同的线索分开,对每个单独的进行描述,又要把它合在一块,让大家知道一个概貌,要避免简单化确确实实是一个很难的事情。     可能有一点能够说明韦伯跟马克思、尼采不同的地方,就是他看到官僚化的威胁,他认为普遍的官僚化会对自由产生威胁,人们会被过于强大的行政力量所左右。这种情况他认为是无论如何必须避免的。他看到了经济方面可能官僚化,资本主义最后会变成垄断资本主义,政治生活也可能会官僚化,社会生活也可能官僚化,他认为普遍的官僚化是一种很可怕的前景。   孙飞宇:我个人理解,在形式化跟所谓的生命实质、精神之间有一个二元区分。   施鲁赫特:“铁笼”在韦伯的原文里应该是“像钢一样坚硬的外壳”,人们一方面受到限制,另一方面又感到满意、很满足。不是要超越当前的生活状态,追求新的东西。人们在壳里面感到满足,视野受到了限制,不去追求新的东西,这是一种巨大的危险。在《新教伦理和资本主义精神》的结尾处韦伯引用了尼采的话,人如果自我满足,就成了自我发明幸福的最后的一群人,他们失去了对新生活追求的力量,不会超越自己了。   孙飞宇:这个形式化是一种所谓的倾向于官僚体系的形式化,官僚化的一种形式化。   施鲁赫特:官僚化也有它的精神——臣仆精神,适应外界环境,使得生活无忧,但也忘记了人的使命——自主地生活。   王炎:一般大家都认为韦伯与马克思之间形成一种对话。他们同样研究现代资本主义,但却从完全不同的角度。马克思的研究注重阶级斗争、经济基础决定上层建筑,毕竟马克思曾在巴黎见证了1848年无产阶级革命,后来又生活在英国,目睹了英国资本主义赤裸裸的剥削,所以他的研究注重从物的层面切入,以经济基础为前提分析上层建筑。 而马克斯·韦伯却颠倒过来,从精神、信仰出发,研究资本主义形式如何被清教伦理塑造,这是不是因为他身处的历史环境已与马克思非常不同?二十世纪初,德国资本主义要远远落后于英国和法国,可以说当时的资本主义方兴未艾,德国市民阶级刚刚兴起。德国社会普遍出现了乡土怀旧情绪,一度兴起”乡土艺术”(Heimat Art)和文学,对往昔田园牧歌的生活憧憬,对德国文化身份怀旧,而对新生的资本主义有某种拒斥。在这样一种氛围中,韦伯才从文化、信仰入手研究资本主义,而不像马克思的唯物主义方法。   施鲁赫特:我们又遇到了刚才的问题,即非学术的语境因素对科学理论的产生和发展所起的作用,这包括生平的、政治的,还有您现在提到的文化上的语境因素。当然这些语境因素会发生一定的作用,但是更重要的是理论的问题能不能得到解决,能得到好的还是差的解决。一个理论上的问题是关于经济基础和上层建筑的问题,那我就要问了,到底是上层建筑决定经济基础,还是经济基础决定上层建筑?到底哪个理论更好?这个问题是要从理论方面回答的,和上面提到的语境因素没有直接关系。     这让我又想起《新教伦理与资本主义精神》,在文章的最后,韦伯说到,不管是历史唯物主义,还是唯心主义也好,两者都有其常识性的正当性。但是如果在研究中只是追随其中的一种,那就不能更接近历史的真实;要超越它们两个之上才可能有有趣的结果。所以,韦伯并不是想把马克思反过来,不是说头在上面,脚在下面,或者头在下面,脚在上面,而是既不给头、也不给脚一个优先权。     第二个问题仍是一个理论上的问题,我们仍不去管刚才所说的语境因素:一个阶级的理论,如果只从跟生产资料的关系这一点来定义一个阶级的话,那么这个阶级理论是不是一种好的理论呢?韦伯当然没有完全批驳马克思的阶级理论,而是把他的阶级理论做了扩展和细化,而且在韦伯的所有分析里面,都有阶级分析的成分,但是他又做了一些区分,比如按照劳动技能,一个有劳动技能的人在劳动力市场上是不是应该得到更高的收入,他把有劳动技能的人称为谋生阶级,以区别于有产阶级。韦伯这么做是有历史依据的,因为随着资本主义的发展,马克思设想的资本主义必然导致的阶级的对立并没有发生,而是产生了阶级的分化。所以韦伯没有抛弃阶级理论,而是将其细化,因为现实的情况需要一个更精细的概念工具来描述。        这里又出现了另外一个概念,必须要和阶级的概念结合起来考虑,那就是等级的概念。在马克思的理论里面,等级和阶级是不同历史阶段的产物,但是对于韦伯来说,在同一个社会里、甚至在现代社会里,阶级和等级都是同时存在的,比如职业等级。对韦伯来说,等级很重要的一个特点,不是首先按照收入划分的,而是按照社会荣誉,按照社会上其他成员对他们的认可,因为人们会辨别这个等级为社会作出了特殊的贡献。对韦伯来说,所有的现代社会,不管英国、法国、德国,都是阶级社会。但是这些社会是由多个阶级组成的,它们之间有差别,其中之一就是社会荣誉的差别。如果他今天到中国的话,他也会把中国社会称为一个阶级社会。因为在中国社会里面,也存在着阶级的形态,这些形态一部分是以经济进程为前提的, 一部分是以教育制度为前提的。这里有不平等、有差别的地方,不管这种区分、差别是不是有道理,但是中国目前社会肯定不是一个均质的,也更不是一个和谐的社会。当前中国社会有很多冲突,但是关键在于我们是否能公开地讨论、解决这些冲突。   邓明艳:我的问题有关于韦伯的方法论。我认为韦伯的方法论不同于他此前的整个近代西方思想传统。近代西方思想从文艺复兴开始,经历中间的浪漫主义,直到韦伯生前依然方兴未艾的实证主义。尽管这三种思想运动从方法论到形而上设定都各自不同,但其中仍然有一个基本线索贯穿始终,揭示出三者彼此的延续性。粗略地说,它们对于人关于世界及人本身的知识都有某种预设。这种预设就是所有的知识都遵循同样的原则或形式,我们只能以这样的原则或形式去理解和认识对象。又或者对象本身有某种普遍的本质,我们对于对象的认识以对本质的理解为基础。这些原则、形式或本质是我们认识和理解的前提,它支撑着或足以解释整个现象,包括自然界的现象和人类世界的现象。一旦我们找到这样的前提,我们就可以解释一切。并且这一前提决定我们由此获得的知识是具有普遍有效性性的知识。尽管实证主义不再坚持经验知识的绝对真或普遍有效,它依然坚持某一类经验知识的绝对确定性,并把它作为其它经验知识相对确定性的基础。但是在韦伯的《新教伦理与资本主义精神》这本书里,你很难看到从一个普遍预设开始,去寻找那个通向本质或绝对真的思辨或抽象论述。你更多地看到他对于具体的生活群体中具体的生活经验的关注。因此在他的方法论中似乎没有从普遍到特殊的这样一种论述方式。相反我们更多地看到它对于证据的展示,而不是论述。这是韦伯方法论中具有革命性的地方。他回避哲学的、形而上思辨的方式,转而关注现实。但现实是特殊的、充满差异的,因此又是不能被普遍化的。您认为韦伯的方法论中有某种普遍预设吗?又或者他通过对特殊现象的研究,最终能够带给我们某些普遍的规律?     施鲁赫特:我想我们可以从两个方面回答这个问题。第一、韦伯的理论有一个重要的前提,即人的行动都是具有意义的,这也是行动和自然现象的本质区别。因此社会科学或社会学应该是一种理解的、解释的科学。而对于自然现象,我们只能够解释,不能理解。我们能够理解人的行动,因为行动总是有动机的。舒茨、韦伯还对行为和行动做了一个区分。他们认为行为是没有意义的,而行动是有意义的。当然,我们不能由此就认为,关于行动的社会学理论,从逻辑上不同于自然科学的理论。行动理论同样也是想解释、也想能够发现一些普遍性的规律,韦伯甚至把它称为社会学规律。 在《经济与社会》这本书里面,韦伯首先定义什么是行动、什么是行动的意义;然后给出各种各样的行动,研究这些行动之间的相互影响;接下来研究社会行动组织。他从最小的行动开始一步一步展开。这是一个逻辑性的过程。当然这不是从一个很高的理念推下来的东西;而是从客观的事实开始,慢慢往上推的过程。     所以按照韦伯的观点,科学工作者作为某种社会现象和社会情况的观察者,他不能只是作为一个局外人来进行观察,而应该从社会成员从一开始对意义进行建构、设计的时候就深入其中。比如说我观察到一个人,他在街上飞奔。这是作为局外人观察到的结果。而社会学研究者则要身入其中,进一步挖掘这一行动的动机。比如我会想他跑是为了赶上汽车,或者有人在追他,或者他正在锻炼身体。但无论如何,这个行动到底有什么样的意义不能仅凭对行动的观察来断定。 所以我必须先要考察他到底有什么动因,才在街上奔跑。也就是说,我一定要跟他主观的所谓理解的意义发生联系,我才能理解他。所以,韦伯就把他的社会学称之为理解的社会学。这个理解的社会学是为解释的社会学服务。在解释的时候我可以有一个形式化的结构、一个普遍规律性的东西,还需要有初始的条件,这是解释。但理解的社会学不能这样,因为它以被研究者作为主体的特殊性为基础。 第二、在韦伯的方法论中我们还需要指出,他不以“绝对真”或“客观正确”作为意义理解的标准或目的。因此他反复地强调对于行动的理解不可能有绝对有效或最有效的一种理解。相反,每一种理解可能都各有侧重(比如更合理性的理解或更情感化的理解),同时又都有尚未被理解的地方。不仅如此,韦伯认为甚至我们的自然科学理论也没有一个是最终确证的。我们的所有理论都是时间中的存在,都需要通过未来的经验对它的有效性做进一步的证明。   潘璐:在目前中国的经济发展中,出现了一些价值观念上的困惑,比如拜金主义、对物质的极端追求等。您站在韦伯的立场上如何评价这些现象,对于克服这些问题有何建议?   施鲁赫特:这个问题很有意思,也很难回答,我觉得从韦伯的分析来看,资本主义本身不会产生出一种限制获利贪欲的精神,尤其是对金钱的贪欲,如果有一种精神能限制这种贪欲的话,这种精神也不会来自资本主义,而应该有其他的来源。     如果我们拿《新教伦理与资本主义精神》进行对照的话,这种精神必须是一种很强大的文化力量,必须是震动人们内心的力量。当然,这里面有一个问题,这种文化力量到底是什么,哪种传承下来的文化因素会起作用?我猜想,社会主义不应该是这种强大的文化因素,因为社会主义是一种西方的传统,而且是资本主义的一个后果,儒家的思想是不是可以成为这种文化因素?这是一种很有趣的思考方向。我们在新加坡生活过一段时间,我们观察到,在新加坡,人们试图复兴儒家的思想,给人提供一种新的方向,用文化的力量束缚资本主义发展中的一些问题。随着东欧的解体,资本主义取得了所谓的全面的胜利,当时人们对于束缚资本主义发展的思路并不感兴趣;而目前,西方在进行一场很广泛的讨论,人们怎么样能够在资本主义经济生活中重新引入道德的原则。引发这种讨论的一个原因就是金融危机,金融危机不仅是金融系统内部的变化所导致的后果,而且是一种短视经济行为的后果,就是说要尽快的挣钱,不管后果是什么。所以我们现在讨论的关键问题就是可持续性,可持续性就是说要克服这种短视的缺点,放弃短期的效益,更多考虑未来和今后的发展。     我们相信,要想达到这种效果,恐怕还是要通过调控、国家的调控,尤其在金融行业,应该有一个全世界都能够认可、都能够通行的规则,才能激励人、甚至迫使人避免只重视短期的效益;因为从今天来看,道德的力量确确实实已经太弱了。   王炎:在中国学界,对韦伯《新教伦理与资本主义精神》有了新的理解,与1980年代的解读不同,有观点认为,既然现代资本主义是新教伦理的产物,而中国没有基督教信仰,因此我们不可能学习或照搬现代资本主义的发展模式,而必须寻找不同的道路。但与此同时在现象层面,韦伯所描述的经典现代资本主义商人,无论在大陆、台湾,还是香港,我们都能够看到。中国商人也非常努力工作,花钱节制,把赚取的利润统统投入再生产,他们是经典的韦伯式的禁欲商人。这似乎出现了理论与经验的悖论,我想问问施鲁赫特先生的看法。   施鲁赫特:如果以为必须先有新教伦理才能产生资本主义,实际上是对韦伯的误解,用韦伯的话说,他只是做了一项史学的研究,他认为,他的观点只能用于17、18世纪西欧的情况之下,而且他认为,在资本主义发展的早期和中期确实是按照他描述的那样:有那么一群企业家,他们实践禁欲的生活,将利润投入再生产中;但很快这个阶段就过去了,资本主义本身的机制替代了新教的伦理,就是它对利润纯粹的追求。     按照哈贝马斯的说法,如果文化的力量已经不具备束缚不良后果的能力的话,那我们应该在社会中进行争论、进行广泛的讨论,搞清楚我们在经济活动中应该采取何种态度,搞清楚腐败是一种不道德的、应该受到惩罚的行为,剥削和极端的分配不公不应该得到姑息。要搞清这些问题需要一个讨论的社会,这种社会要能够承受各种冲突,也能够接受不同的意见。   潘璐:好的。由于时间关系我们今天就到这儿。感谢施鲁赫特教授,谢谢各位。  
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  14. 霍旭初:新疆克孜尔石窟盗劫问题
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    在德国,我们的文物是放在印度艺术博物馆,这就很能说明问题。他们把新疆古代的东西,全都认为是外来文化--印度的。他们不承认新疆是一个有自己文化体系的地方。在外国人的论文里面,字里行间都透露着龟兹文化是印度文化,或者是波斯、希腊文化。这是我们双方研究上的一个焦点。
  15. 刘仰:永远难忘的“民国范儿”
    2011/07/10 | 阅读: 2015
    “民国范儿”是美利奴精英的“范儿”,不是饿死、冻死的中国普通民众的“范儿”,所以,“民国范儿”最终只能落户于那个被美国保护的海岛。当今大陆像孔财长、孔总裁、孔院长、宋财长那样玩金融、玩经济的“民国范儿”,有多少正在茁壮成长呢?
  16. 饶宗颐:我的家学经历
    2011/09/23 | 阅读: 2092
    选自饶宗颐学术访谈集《选堂清谈录》
  17. 黄家亮、廉如鉴:"中国人无所谓自私"--梁漱溟关于民族自私性问题的思想
    2012/07/22 | 阅读: 2551
    从清末到民国的几十年间,一部分人认为中国人是自私的;另一部分人则决不承认中国人自私。八十年代后,随着柏扬《丑陋的中国人》一书流行,讨论又热烈起来,然而一个更深层的问题常常被人们遗忘:"中国人自私吗?"这个问题本身是否有足够的正当性?
  18. 沃尔夫·勒佩尼斯:何谓欧洲知识分子
    2011/11/05 | 阅读: 1877
    勒佩尼斯把欧洲知识分子划分为具有坚定信念的和多愁善感的两种,前者是洋洋得意的智者,后者是备受煎熬的智者。
  19. 王炎:伊斯坦布尔一日
    2011/11/11 | 阅读: 2125
    时光荏苒,沧海桑田,亚洲大陆上天各一边的两个古老国家,现代进程曾戏剧性地交集,又淡然擦肩而过,形同陌路,记忆失落在时间的无涯的荒野里。
  20. 钱逊:先父钱穆的学术精神
    2011/12/15 | 阅读: 1531
    今天,为纪念先父逝世20周年,素书楼举行这个研讨会,邀请我参加,并要我在开幕会上发言,我非常感谢,也非常惭愧。对先父的学术,我了解很少,更谈不上研究。只能说一些平时常在念中的粗浅想法。怎样看待中华民族的传统文化,是近代以来中国人关注、讨论的大问题。特别在大陆,还经历了十年"文革"彻底否定传统文化的破坏。经过这些,特别感受到先父在《国史大纲》全书最前面《凡读本书请先具下列诸信念》那段话的意义。他在那里面提出,任何一国之国民,尤其是自称知识在水平线以上之国民,对其本国已往历史,应该略有所知。尤必附随一种对其本国已往历史之温情与敬意。每一国家必待其国民备具上列诸条件者比较渐多,其国家乃再有向前发展之希望。否则其所改进,等于一个被征服国或次殖民地之改进,对其国家自身不发生关系。换言之,此种改进,无异是一种变相的文化征服,乃其文化自身之萎缩与消灭,并非其文化自身之转变与发皇。我觉得,这段话可以说反映了他全部学术的精神,也反映了他一生的活动。对中华文化的温情和敬意,是贯穿在他全部学术中的核心精神;他一生的活动,都是为了唤起国人对传统文化的温情和敬意。怎样看待民族的传统文化,是一个时代的课题。尽管时间已经过去70多年,情况有了很大变化。文化上看,过去一个时期批判、否定中华文化的思潮占主导地位的情况已经发生了根本变化,现在肯定、弘扬中华文化的思想成为主流;经济上看,我们有了30年的快速发展,物质方面有了很多的改进。然而,对自己民族的历史文化抱有温情和敬意的问题,仍然有着现实的意义。在肯定了弘扬中华文化的大方向的同时,仍有不少人对此满怀疑虑,对中华文化抱着鄙弃的态度;在经济得到一定发展的同时,又看到精英阶层中出现了移民潮等等。当时他讲道,如果国民的多数不能对自身的历史文化抱有温情和敬意的话,那么其所改进,等于一个被征服国或次殖民地之改进;此种改进,只能是一种变相的文化征服,是其文化自身之萎缩与消灭,而非其文化自身之转变与发展。现在我们在经济上有了一定的发展,回头再来看,更感到这个问题的重要。我们现在所看到的,岂不正是显示出了经济发展而文化萎缩以至趋于消灭的危险吗?这些现象的出现,应该说都与前一阶段否定传统文化,导致国民普遍对自己民族的历史文化缺乏了解,更缺乏应有的温情和敬意有关。如何帮助人们建立起这种温情和敬意,是我们面临的重要而又迫切的问题。从传承中华文化的目的出发,先父注重向社会大众普及中华传统文化的知识和精神;他毕生的著述,有相当一部分是对学生和社会民众的讲话。他曾说,在文化中不能没有读书做学问的人,然而若谈文化问题,连不读书人的一般生活趋向都须顾及;中国古人亦曾注意到这个问题,注意到不读书不做学问人如何做人和生活的问题。"今日谈文化问题,自亦该注意到此,不该以专家学者自限"(《中国学术通义·我对于中国文化的展望》)。近代以来,受西方学术体制和思想的影响,在国学的研究中发展了专业化、职业化的倾向。现在我们都在谈迎接我们民族的伟大复兴,包括中华文化的复兴。此刻来重温这段话,注意不以专家学者自限,关注不读书不做学问人如何做人和生活的问题,是很有意义的。我个人缺乏学习和研究,不敢奢谈先父学术,以上所说只是读他书的一点感受。说这些,也是表达自己的心迹,要继承先父遗志,学习先父精神,为中华文化的复兴尽自己一份绵薄之力。钱逊编后:此文系作者于2010年10月22日在台北素书楼举行的纪念国学大师钱穆先生逝世20年周年研讨会上的发言,题目为编者所加。
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