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精神动力学心理治疗和精神分析在中国的发展历程Sverre Varvin (挪威) and Alf Gerlach (德国)历史  中国对于精神分析和精神动力学、精神分析治疗实践的兴趣可以说有一个既漫长也短暂的历史。说它漫长可以回溯到1912年，那年章博士写了关于弗洛伊德的精神分析的文章。随后，中国对于精神分析的兴趣不断增加，不仅仅体现在临床治疗学科上，还体现在政治、文学、哲学以及其他与精神分析理论相关的学科方面。1929年弗洛伊德的第一批著作被翻译，如群体心理学和自我分析（1921），随后弗洛依德的一些重要著作也陆续被翻译如"一个自传的学习"（1925）在20世纪30年代，有一名在中国接受过精神动力学取向心理治疗培训的精神科医生叫戴秉衡，他于1935-1939年期间一直在北京协和医学院工作，后来他又接受了分别来自纽约和芝加哥的精神分析师H.S.Sullivan和 L. Saul的培训，并将他的经验通过教学、督导以及培训治疗等方式传递给他的同事们(Gerlach 2003)。Adolf Joseph Storfer是一个从维也纳流亡到中国的犹太人，作为一名精神分析师，他来到上海后发表了一些关于精神分析的文章，对中国精神科医师和知识分子有很大的影响(Plänkers, 2010).，在1920年到1949年期间，中国哲学界、文学界和评论界都较认同精神分析的观点，一些哲学家，心理学家和文学评论家翻译了弗洛伊德和其他精神分析学家的很多著作。精神分析学派的观点被很多著名的作家运用。比如中国的心理学家高觉敷翻译了弗洛伊德的著作《精神分析引论》，并且写了关于这门新科学的重要报道(Gerlach 2003)。在20世纪30年代，中国对于政治和精神分析的兴趣与一些欧洲国家的发展情况相似。在1936年Wilhelm Reich所著的"辩证唯物主义和精神分析"在中国出版，中文标题名为"精神分析学批判"，在1940年由R.Osborn所著的"弗洛伊德和马克思"在中国以"精神分析学与马克思主义"的标题出版。在中国的培训项目说精神分析在中国的历史较短暂，是将发展历史从1983年开始算起，当时德国精神分析师被邀请到广州做报告和研讨会，他们同时参加了关于海南岛癔症大流行的精神病学研究。从1997年到1999年，来自中德心理治疗学院的德国分析师小组为中国精神病学家和心理学家提供了精神分析学取向的心理治疗连续培训。他们分别在昆明、北京、上海、武汉和成都开展过培训工作。从2000年开始，在Alf Gerlach博士的带领下，德国分析师与上海精神卫生中心合作在上海开展培训，带来了为期三年的密集培训项目，它吸引了很多中国资深的精神科医生和心理治疗师参加。这个项目也得到了德国学术交流服务机构（DAAD），中德心理治疗学院、以及包括DPV、DPG和DGPT在内的德国精神分析学组的赞助，它们对各种从基础到提高培训的心理动力学心理治疗培训项目都予以赞助。特蕾沙·袁博士，作为一名具有中国背景的阿根廷精神分析师，从1995年开始在中国积极从事于精神分析心理治疗的教学工作。她在北京医科大学儿童精神病研究所开办研讨会，在北京安定医院开设课程和工作坊。她从2002年与北京安定医院的杨蕴萍教授合作开始了系统的培训项目。培训师资包括欧洲精神分析师 Bien Filet (荷兰), Sverre Varvin (挪威) and Julia Fabricius (英国)。Yuan博士在2003、2004、2005年 与Peter Loewenberg （美国)合作为香港医院管理局开展了心理动力学培训项目。紧接着，在挪威精神分析协会安排下，由Sverre Varvin 教授组织的教师队伍于2006年分别在北京和武汉开展了为期三年的连续培训项目，这个项目得到了挪威政府和北京安定医院及北京政府的共同资助。挪威项目（也包括上海的中德项目）的主要目的是为中国的心理治疗培育未来师资。这是一个"培养培训师"的项目。中挪项目已经有80-120名参加者，以水平不同分成两个组。提高组包括接受过上海中德项目数年培训的学员，这些学员是初级组学员的督导师，在后来的培训项目中，他们已成为非常合格的老师和督导师，也是在中国医院和大学中工作的重要老师。三届中挪培训班都是按如下方式组织的：-          一年两次，每次为期一周的密集培训项目，每界都以挪威师资为主，前两期包括德国师资。培训内容包括讲座，小组督导和短期密集的个人体验，也叫做"自我体验"，也可以定义为"迷你型"治疗。-          每个受训者要求完成两个治疗案例，并接受有规律的督导，一个治疗案例包括至少100次的治疗，另一个案例包括至少50次以上的治疗。督导者主要是已经过中挪项目陪训的中国同事，受训者也可以通过Skype被欧洲老师督导。-          凡参加培训项目的受训者必须要撰写一篇合格的论文。第一个培训项目于2008年结束，大多数的受训者都达到了培训要求，他们获得证书并且被中国心理卫生协会认证，他们被看作目前中国精神心理卫生系统的心理治疗培训发展的关键人物，这是一个成功的项目。基于学员在第二年结束时开始的理解和心理治疗实践能力的提高，我们看到了这种连续培训的重要性。这些项目中有几个中国受训者被邀请花一些时间（3-12个月）在德国的大学或医院的精神分析科室，或者在诸如法兰克福的弗洛伊德研究院的机构进行进一步的培训，在这些短期逗留中，他们也接受密集的个人精神分析性心理治疗。中美心理治疗协会（CAPA）自从2008年，中美心理治疗协会在Elise Snyder的领导下组织了为期两年的培训项目，包括研讨会、督导、心理治疗或者说是精神分析。其中大部分是通过Skype的视频方式完成的，这点是与德国和挪威的项目的主要区别。在过去的20年里，这些项目吸引了相当可观的兴趣，并且中国确实受益于这些尤其是德国精神分析师所做过的工作。尽管德国和挪威的项目不是由IPA组织，与IPA也没有任何联系，但是毫无疑问的是这些工作对于在中国进行恰当的精神分析培训的可能性来说至关重要。完善的精神分析培训于2008年在北京开始。其中一个重要的前提是一位IPA的培训分析师Irmgard Dettbarn医生于2007年开始在北京工作。现在中国的精神分析培训中有9位候选人，他们都是来自中-挪威和/或者中-德培训项目中的学员。现状现在，在中国有众多与精神分析相关的活动。2004年，中国精神分析协会成立，共有33位成员分别来自北京、成都、广州、杭州、哈尔滨、合肥、上海、苏州、武汉、西安。2008年，IPA中国联盟中心的成立是与IPA第一次正式建立关系。当前，中国有一些重要的精神分析工作中心：北京，北京安定医院（杨蕴萍教授，临床心理学系主任）。上海，上海精神卫生中心（肖泽萍教授，上海精神卫生中心主任）武汉，同济医科大学（施琪嘉教授，心理治疗系主任）现在作品被翻译成中文的精神分析作家包括西格蒙德.弗洛伊德、安娜.弗洛伊德、约瑟夫.桑德勒、拉尔夫. 格林森、安东尼.贝塔曼和杰里米. 毫慕斯。一个把弗洛伊德文集翻译成中文的雄心勃勃的计划由法兰克福的Tomas Plänkers医生领导。结论在过去的27年里，在中国的动力性心理治疗和精神分析发展中，IPA分析师做了很多重要的工作：1. 培训大量的精神病医师和心理学者，起源于已经演示了对一些疾病有疗效的精神分析方法。这些受训者目前有许多在精神病院、综合医院的心理治疗科、大学的临床心理系和中国政府的卫生部门起到骨干作用。2. 培训师资格，是能够教授新一代临床医生对精神分析的理解和治疗方法。3. 也许最重要的是，对咨询关系的精神分析的理解已经被证明对任何精神疾病的治疗都是很重要的。例如，已经证明药物的疗效很多依赖于医患关系的性质。这里，移情-反移情的理解对于在正确的情感氛围中治疗是不可缺少的。在精神医学中， 这点同样也适用于任何不同的治疗。可以说在其他的治疗范例中，比如认知行为治疗中，理解治疗师和病人之间的无意识互动的重要性，也就是移情-反移情，愈加重要。结果，精神分析和基于精神分析的治疗都是治疗形式和一种理解治疗师与病人关系的方式。在这个内容上，应该中肯的寻求它是否有效、它如何起效、对什么人什么起效的证据。因此，中国研究者在中国的研究是必要的。在动力学取向的中国成员中这种兴趣逐渐增加，动力学相关的研究项目已经初具规模，而IPA成员作为督导者参与其中，一个很好的例子就是关于创伤的研究和治疗师胜任能力的研究(Varvin 2010)。4. 中国精神分析师的培训在未来将成立精神分析学院和协会。在过去的27年中IPA分析师取得了相当可观的成就，在中国建立了不同水平的精神分析性心理治疗培训项目：-      在动力学心理治疗中进行了精神动力取向的心理治疗师和督导师的培训。-      帮助建立了专业组织。-      帮助在精神心理疾病的治疗中整合精神分析的治疗和理解。-      帮助实施精神分析相关研究。-      以建立精神分析培训机构为目的而进行的精神分析培训。这个工作也与中国目前正在进行的包含心理治疗作为临床心理学家和精神病学家培训内容的精神卫生改革相关。IPA分析师S. Varvin 和 A. Gerlach是这个中国法制-行政-教育体系的顾问。   总之，30年的精神动力学培训和临床工作已经在许多IPA分析师和其他分析师的帮助下，得以实现。 参考文献：GERLACH, A. (2003) Psychoanalysis - an Inspiration for Chinese Culture? Lecture, Taiwan Centre for the Development of Psychoanalysis. Taipei, May 3, 2005.PLÄNKERS, T. (2010) Adolf Josef Storfer (1888 - 1944). Ein PsychoanalytikerIm jüdischen Exil Shanghai. Shanghai, Ausstellung und Vortragsreihedes JewishRefugees Museums und des Deutschen Generalkonsulats Shanghai.Varvin,S.(2009), What do we know about what works on psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy: Research findings, clinical experience and experience from psychotherapy in China. In: CHINESE PSYCHOTHERAPY IN DIALOGUE(CPID), no 2. 

“九一一”事件与珍珠港事件一样都是没有预警的突然袭击。两个事件凸现出情报工作的重要性。珍珠港事件前,美国没有一个统一的情报收集系统。罗斯福总统曾抱怨送到他办公桌上的情报漫无头绪,不知所云。珍珠港事件的一个直接后果便是成立“战略服务处（the Office of Strategic Services或简称OSS）”,负责整合美国的情报收集工作。1947年7月,OSS变成了CIA（the Central Intelligence Agency）,即大名鼎鼎的“中央情报局”。　　中央情报局赞助了大量政论性刊物和文化刊物。这些刊物包括著名的《撞击》,《评论》,《新领袖》,《党人评论》,《肯友评论》,《哈德逊评论》,《塞万尼评论》,《诗歌》,《思想史杂志》,《转型》,《审查》,《代达罗斯》。直接注入经费是一种资助方式,另外中央情报局还让“文化自由大会”免费为各国知识精英订阅这些刊物,间接资助它们。　　既然叫“情报局”,其基本职能就应该是收集、整理、分析、评估各方情报。但中央情报局在这方面的表现似乎差强人意。远的不说,它事先对洛克比空难、1993年的纽约世贸大厦爆炸案、美国驻肯尼亚和坦桑尼亚大使馆爆炸案、美军舰在亚丁港的爆炸案就毫不知情。这次“九一一”事件更被一些美国人称之为“情报工作的重大失误”。为什么中央情报局会表现得如此糟糕呢？英国刊物《国务新人》（New Statesman）的年轻女编辑桑德丝（Frances Stonor Saunders）提出了一个有趣的解释：也许它在忙些别的事。　　那么中央情报局到底在忙些什么呢？众所周知,它曾经多次帮助推翻民选政府、扶持军人政权：希腊的新法西斯（1949年）、伊朗的极右王朝（1953年）、危地马拉的杀人政府（1954年）、黎巴嫩的长枪党（1959年）、印度尼西亚的苏哈托军人政权（1965年）、智利的皮诺切特军人政权（1971年）、南非的种族隔离政权（最近有材料揭露,正是中央情报局将曼德拉交给南非警察当局拘禁）……身后都有中央情报局的影子。就连现在让美国人恨得牙痒痒的本•拉登也是中央情报局一手拉扯大的。如果要将中央情报局在这方面的“战绩”一一列举,清单会很长。它的确够忙的。　　除此之外,中央情报局还在忙另一些见不得人的事。桑德丝对此也许比谁都清楚,因为她经过数年研究刚刚出版了一本长达五百页的新书《文化冷战：中央情报局与文学艺术》（以下简称《文化冷战》）。任何人看完此书大概都会得出一个结论：中央情报局实际上就是美国的隐性“宣传部”。对此结论,冷战设计者之一乔治•坎南（George Kennan）并不讳言,不过他情愿用个好听一点的词“文化部”。他说：“美国没有个文化部,中央情报局有责任来填补这个空缺。”美国表面上反对搞宣传,实际上搞起宣传来比谁都更重视、更在行、更不择手段。美国国家安全委员会1950年7月10日的指示对“宣传”做出了如下定义：“有组织地运用新闻、辩解和呼吁等方式散布信息或某种教义,以影响特定人群的思想和行为。”对外,宣传是心理战的一部分,而心理战的定义是“一 个国家有计划地运用宣传和其他非战斗活动传播思想和信息,以影响其他国家人民的观点、态度、情绪和行为,使之有利于本国目标的实现”。简而言之,宣传和心理战的目的是为了争夺人的心与脑,其重要性“与空军一样不可或缺”。　　美国搞宣传的最大特点是“看不见”。精通此道的心理战专家克罗斯曼（Richard Crossman）说得很清楚,“上乘的宣传看起来要好像从未进行过一样”。最好的宣传应该能“让被宣传的对象沿着你所希望的方向行进,而他们却认为是自己在选择方向”。只要能做到这一点,乔治•坎南认为“必要的谎言（necessary lie）”和欺骗都是允许的。 　　《文化冷战》讲的是在1947至1967年间的故事,其场景设在美国和欧洲,主角是一个叫做“文化自由大会（the Congress for Cultural Freedom）”的组织。“文化自由大会”成立于1950年,在其鼎盛时期,它在35个国家设有分支机构（包括“文化自由美国委员会”）,雇有几十位全职工作人员,拥有自己的新闻社,出版20多种显赫刊物,经常举办艺术展览,组织高规格的国际会议,并为音乐家、艺术家颁奖。表面看来,“文化自由大会”是一个争取文化自由的组织；实际上它不过是个没有什么自由的傀儡；其幕后操纵者正是中央情报局。通过梳理美国政府的解密文件、私人档案材料和对当事人的采访记录,桑德丝以缜密的方式证明了这一点。　　不过,此书真正引人入胜的地方并不在于证明中央情报局的幕后角色,而在于它揭示了美式宣传机器特有的运作方式。　　中央情报局宣传的目的有二：一方面是反共,一方面是树立美国的正面形象。前一个目的比较好理解,毕竟当时是冷战时期。为什么树立美国正面形象也那么重要呢？原来,当时在欧洲人心目中,美国只是一个经济上的暴发户,完全没有文化底蕴。另外,美国对黑人的种族歧视也在欧洲引起普遍反感。为了维护自己的霸权地位,光有钱、有坚船利炮是不够的,还得树立文明、正义的形象。在世界范围内宣扬美国价值观和美国生活方式因此变成美国对外宣传的重要组成部分,其目的是在外国培养出一批以美国是非为是非的知识精英,再通过他们去影响本国的公共舆论和政策制定。　　众所周知,长期以来,美国对中国的宣传重点是放在所谓“自由派”知识分子身上的。一般人可能会认为,中央情报局在世界其他地方一定也会把工作重点放在右翼人士身上。其实不然,中央情报局很会审时度势。在战后欧洲,它真正下功夫的对象是有幻灭感、挫折感的非共左翼知识分子,尤其是那些一度加入共产主义运动的人,如法国作家马尔罗（André　Malraux）,法国社会理论家阿隆（Raymond Aron）,匈牙利裔英籍作家库斯特勒（Arthur Koestler）,意大利作家斯隆（Ignazio Silone）,英国诗人、批评家史班德（Stephen Spender）,美国哲学家胡克（Sidney Hook）,美国作家麦克唐纳（Dwight Macdonald）,美国政论家克里斯托（Irving Kristol）等。中央情报局之所以做出这样的选择是经过深思熟虑的。由于在“二战”期间与纳粹合流,欧洲的右派们在战后声名狼藉,与他们合作搞宣传效果只会适得其反。与共产主义抗衡,最有效的办法莫过于让那些从共产主义阵营脱队出来的知名人士现身说法。用与中央情报局过从密切的历史学家小施莱辛格（Arthur Schlesinger Jr.）的话来说,这些人是“抵御极权主义的最佳屏障”。在国外,中央情报局主要依靠当地的知识精英,这样做有利于掩盖美国的黑手,制造出一切源于本地的假象。　　中央情报局的宣传手法十分灵活。这里仅举几个例子。《动物农庄》是反共电影的代表作,而这部片子实际上是由中央情报局导演和资助的。1950年,乔治•奥威尔死后不久,中央情报局就派人到英国与其遗孀商谈将《动物农庄》改编为电影的问题。获得电影权后,中央情报局找到愿意为它当幌子的制片人,并通过间接方式把钱打入制片人的账户,于是才有了这部在当时最具规模的动画片（共动用80位卡通画家,设置750个场景,绘制30万幅彩图）。中央情报局不仅出钱,也直接干预剧本改编。据美国心理战争署（The Psychological Strategy Board）1952年1月23日的备忘录说,原作的结尾传达不出明确反共的信息。为了激起观众强烈的反共情绪,电影对结局做了重大改编,代表腐败资本主义的农场主不见了,只留下面目可憎的代表共产主义的“猪”。　　同样的事发生在对奥威尔另一部小说《一九八四）的改编上。原著本来表达的是对一切专制政府的厌恶,既包括左翼专制,也包括右翼专制。但这并不是中央情报局所需要的。中央情报局要的仅是对共产主义的丑化。尽管奥威尔曾明确表示不允许对《一九八四》做任何改动,由美国政府出资制作的电影《一九八四》还是对原著动了不少手脚,尤其是结尾部分,完全违背了作者的原意。电影《动物农庄》和《一九八四》于1956年同时上市,为了扩大影响,中央情报局的外围组织安排在主要报刊上发表评论和社论,并分发了大量电影票的折扣券。　　中央情报局最具创意的宣传运作恐怕是对抽象表现主义（abstract expressionism）的推销。也许有人会问,完全没有实际意义的抽象艺术怎么可以用来做反共武器呢？我们千万不可小瞧中央情报局的想像力。正是因为抽象艺术没有实际意义,它恰好可以用来对抗共产主义。一位中央情报局的工作人员事后解释道：“这是一种与社会主义现实主义毫无关系的艺术形式……莫斯科当时对任何背离社会主义现实主义的作品都大加鞭笞,因此我们认为他们反对的东西一定值得我们的大力支持。”当然,由中央情报局出面推销抽象艺术不太合适,但愿意为中央情报局效力的博物馆很多。美国的博物馆和艺术收藏馆大多是私人性质的,其中收藏当代艺术和先锋艺术最负盛名的当属设在纽约的“现代艺术博物馆（the Museum Of Modern Art）”,它因此变成了中央情报局的首选。中央情报局选用“现代艺术博物馆”还有一个不能公开说明的理由：该馆负责人中有不少与中央情报局有千丝万缕的联系。由于准备周全,“抽象表现主义展”十分轰动,并在艺术界形成了一个强劲的新流派。事后,有些中央情报局的工作人员不无得意地说,“中央情报局是50年代美国最好的艺术评论家”；“我们是抽象表现主义运动的真正缔造者”。　　由于经费充足,中央情报局搞起宣传来几乎无孔不入。用它自己的话来说,“所有的知识领域,我们都有兴趣,从人类学到艺术创作,从社会学到科学方法论,无一例外”。为了渗透这些领域,中央情报局很善于借用在这些领域通行的一些运作方式,包括举办讲座和研讨会,创办学术刊物,开设图书馆,资助学者互访,捐助讲座教授位置等。　　大运作全力以赴,小把戏也是中央情报局的擅长。20世纪50年代,美国的种族隔离政策依然十分严重,遭到了社会主义阵营和西方进步力量的强烈批评。为了洗刷美国的劣迹,中央情报局特意安排了一些黑人艺术家赴欧洲巡回表演。更令人叫绝的是,它买通好莱坞的一些导演,在电影中将黑人的居住和生活条件刻意拔高,试图给观众造成美国黑人很幸福的假象。　　在中央情报局资助的刊物上,并不是完全舆论一律。对美国不关痛痒的小骂、小调侃时不时会出现一些,这样才能显现出其“超然”的立场。但把关人绝对不允许违背美国外交政策的批评曝光。例如麦克唐纳1958年为中央情报局资助的《撞击》（Encounter）杂志写了一篇题为《美国,美国》的文章,其中批评了美国的庸俗的大众文化、粗鄙的物质享受主义。这样的文章显然与美国宣扬的所谓“美国价值观”相抵触。尽管麦克唐纳与中央情报局的外围组织过从密切,他的文章还是遭到了封杀。　　中央情报局设立的幌子基金会很多,其中最臭名昭著的是“法弗德基金会”；中国学者熟悉的“亚洲基金会”当时也属于这一类。但在冷战期间真正帮了中央情报局大忙的是诸如“福特基金会”,“洛克菲勒基金会”,“卡内基基金会”这样的大牌基金会。中央情报局往往将经费拨到这些基金会的账上,然后这些基金会再以自己的名义把钱“捐助”给中央情报局指定的对象。　　上面提到中央情报局搞宣传的经费充裕,那么到底充裕到什么程度呢？一位它的工作人员是这样形容的,“我们根本就花不完,要多少有多少,而且没有人来查账,真是不可思议”。可以这么说,中央情报局最厉害的武器就是它取之不尽的银行存款。　　当然,中央情报局不会傻到公开拿钱出来赞助其重点宣传对象,一切资金运作都是秘密的。它有时会找一些个人、公司或其他机构,请他们将钱以自己的名义捐给中央情报局的赞助对象,或中央情报局设立的幌子基金会。这些机构和个人在中央情报局的术语中叫做“安静的管道（quiet channels）”。中央情报局设立的幌子基金会很多,其中最臭名昭著的是“法弗德基金会（Farfield Foundation）”；中国学者熟悉的“亚洲基金会（Asia Foundation）”当时也属于这一类。　　但幌子基金会也有缺点,它们很难做得太大,否则会太引人注目。最好的方式是通过民间大基金会洗钱。基金会不像公司必须对股东定期交代账目,隐蔽性较高。愿意为中央情报局效劳的民间基金会还真不少,有些甚至找上门去为中央情报局服务。“凯普伦基金会（Kaplan Foundation）”便是一个例子。但在冷战期间真正帮了中央情报局大忙的是诸如“福特基金会（Ford Foundation）”,“洛克菲勒基金会（Rockefeller Foundation）”,“卡内基基金会（Carnegie Foundation）”这样的大牌基金会。中央情报局往往将经费拨到这些基金会的账上,然后这些基金会再以自己的名义把钱“捐助”给中央情报局指定的对象。据透露,在1963至1966年间,美国向164家基金会共拨发700笔10000美金以上的款项（当时这是很大的数目）,其中至少有108笔完全或部分来自中央情报局。在这些基金会所有对国际活动的赞助中,有将近一半来自中央情报局。　　除了设立“文化自由美国委员会”和“文化自由大会”在30多个国家的分支机构外,中央情报局赞助了大量政论性刊物和文化刊物。这些刊物包括著名的《撞击》,《评论》（Commentary）,《新领袖》（New leader）,《党人评论》（Partisan Review）,《肯友评论》（Kenyou Review）,《哈德逊评论》（Hudson Review）,《塞万尼评论》（Sewanee Review）,《诗歌》（Poetry）,《思想史杂志》（The Journal of the History of Ideas）,《转型》（Transition）,《审查》（Censorship）,《代达罗斯》（Daedalus,是美国科学与艺术院的机关刊物）。直接注入经费是一种资助方式,另外中央情报局还让“文化自由大会”免费为各国知识精英订阅这些刊物,间接资助它们。　　资助书籍出版是中央情报局的另一项大运作,因为在它看来,“书籍是最重要的战略性宣传工具”。据不完全统计,中央情报局在50、60年代至少参与了一千本书的出版。如吉拉斯的《新阶级》和巴斯特纳克的《日瓦戈医生》都是中央情报局的推销重点。不光出书,中央情报局还请人在各类刊物上撰写书评,推销其出版物。　　资助书籍出版是中央情报局的另一项大运作,因为在它看来,“书籍是最重要的战略性宣传工具”。据不完全统计,中央情报局在50、60年代至少参与了1000本书的出版。如吉拉斯的《新阶级》和巴斯特纳克的《日瓦戈医生》都是中央情报局的推销重点（“significant books”）。其他的书林林总总、不胜枚举,涉及中国的至少有现任哈佛大学政治学教授麦克法（Roderick MacFarquhar）编辑的《百花齐放》（The Hundred Flowers）。不光出书,中央情报局还请人在各类刊物上撰写书评,推销其出版物。当然所有这一切都是秘密进行的,外人根本不知道其中的黑幕。　　《文化冷战》列举了长长一串接受过中央情报局资助的人的名单,读起来有点像20世纪西方文化名人录,仅中国读者熟悉的人就包括历史学家小施莱辛格；理论家马尔罗,克里斯托,罗素,柏林,阿伦特,屈林夫妇,席尔斯；社会学家贝尔；诗人艾略特,奥登,洛威尔；小说家库斯特勒,奥威尔,玛丽•麦卡锡；画家罗思柯,波洛克等。　　一般的书索引部分是最没意思的。《文化冷战》则不同,其索引部分最让人开眼：它列举了长长一串接受过中央情报局资助的人的名单,读起来有点像20世纪西方文化名人录,仅中国读者熟悉的人就包括历史学家小施莱辛格；理论家马尔罗（Andre Malraux）,克里斯托（Irving kristol）,罗素（Bertrand Russell）,柏林（Isiah Berlin）,阿伦特（Hannah Arendt）,屈林夫妇（Lionel Trilling和Diana Trilling）,席尔斯（Edward Shils）；社会学家贝尔（Daniel Bell）；诗人艾略特（T.S.Eliot）,奥登（W.H.Auden）,洛威尔（Robert Lowell）；小说家库斯特勒（Arthur koestler）,奥威尔（George Orwell）,玛丽•麦卡锡（Mary McCarthy）；画家罗思柯（Mark Rothko）,波洛克（Jackson Pollock）等。　　在这些人中,有些的确不知道自己被中央情报局利用,当有人送来头等舱机票,被邀请去度假胜地开会,他们乐得去享受一下。有的则清清楚楚地知道资金来源,如小施莱辛格,柏林,阿隆,阿尔罗,席尔斯,贝尔,胡克,屈林夫妇。还有些人声称自己不知道,但知情人认为他们不可能不知道,只是为了维护自己“独立”的形象假装不知道而已。　　这里值得一提的有两位小说家。一位是《正午的黑暗》的作者库斯特勒。这位匈牙利裔英籍作家年轻时曾参加共产党,为共产国际的宣传部门工作。后来他变成了激烈的反共分子。1948年,他到美国转了一大圈,在那里与中央情报局挂上了钩,正是听了他的建议后,中央情报局把宣传的重点放到了“非共左翼知识分子”身上。他对英国政府的谍报部门IRD（The Information Research Department）提出了同样的建议。他得到的回报是,《正午的黑暗》出版后,IRD秘密买下五万本送人,使他大捞了一笔稿酬。　　另一位是《动物农庄》和《一九八四》的作者奥威尔。在小说中,他表现出对监视一切行为的“大兄弟”和告密者的强烈憎恨,但他自己却两方面的癖好都有。奥威尔有个习惯,走到哪儿都随身带着一个蓝皮四开笔记本,记录可疑的人和事。到1949年,笔记本中已包括了125个人的材料。奥威尔怀疑这些人有的显现了“同性恋倾向”,有的“好像是黑种”,有的大概是“英国犹太人”。如果仅仅是自己记着玩玩也就罢了,而奥威尔却在冷战高潮的1949年主动跑到英国谍报部门IRD举报了35个“共党同路人”,使这些人的名誉和生活受到严重打击。奥威尔曾在《动物农庄》的序言中堂而皇之地引用伏尔泰的话说,“我不赞成你的观点,但会誓死保卫你说话的权利”。但他临死前的作为却好像是说,“我不赞成你的观点,所以我有权向有关当局检举你”。不过言行不一的“ 自由主义者”又岂止奥威尔一人。　　《文化冷战》虽然长达500多页,但内容引人入胜,拿起来就希望一口气读完。如果说它有什么缺点的话,大概可以指出两点。一是它只涵盖了1947至1967年,这也许是由于有关以后年代的文件美国政府还没有解密的缘故,而不是因为中央情报局洗手不干了。最近美国《混合语》（Lingua Franca）杂志揭露,中央情报局在1996年后加紧了对学术界的渗透。以笔者熟悉的政治学界为例,就有不少人为中央情报局工作,如哈佛大学肯尼迪学院院长Joseph S.Nye,哥伦比亚大学教授、美国政治学会会长Robert Jervis,以及我在耶鲁大学政治系的同事Bradford Westefield。他们本人也不否认。《文化冷战》的另一个缺点是它没有涉及中央情报局在亚洲的宣传活动。中央情报局岂有放过亚洲（特别是中国）知识界的道理。也许桑德丝本人对亚洲知识界的背景不了解,所以没有能力涉及。但愿有一天有人能弥补这个缺憾。　　不过《文化冷战》的最大贡献是它用确凿的证据证明中央情报局的手伸得很长,几乎无所不在。又是颠覆,又是宣传,也许还有其他一些见不得人的勾当。中央情报局实在是太忙了,因此在本职的情报工作方面出些纰漏几乎是难以避免的。只是这次世贸双塔叫人撞没了,五角大楼被撞成了四角大楼,麻烦惹得实在太大了。以后中央情报局会吸取教训变得安分守己一点吗？等着瞧吧！　　2001年9月29日于香港吐露湾作者 王绍光 1990年获康乃尔大学政治学博士学位。1990-2000年任教于美国耶鲁大学政治系。现为香港中文大学政治与公共行政系教授，清华大学公共管理学院长江讲座教授，英文学术刊物《The China Review》主编。

一永乐年间，从朱元璋裔孙建文帝手中夺得政权的明成祖（永乐皇帝朱棣），曾两次编纂佛教大藏经，先是依照洪武年间在蒋山寺编印的《洪武南藏》于南京编刻《永乐南藏》。接着在永乐八年（1410），他又下令在北京刊刻《永乐北藏》。据《释鉴稽古略续集》卷三记载，明成祖曾经颁旨，要求在南北各刻大藏经一副，另外还打算“石刻一藏，安置大石洞。圣旨：向后木的坏了，有石的在”，但是，不知为什么，石刻大藏经的计划似乎并没有施行，倒是《永乐北藏》确实从永乐八年之后，由栖岩慧进等高僧领衔，“总督海内文学儒士高僧，于海印经馆校大藏经”。这一编订刻印的时间很长，大约近十年《永乐北藏》才大体成型，据葛寅亮《金陵梵刹志》卷二《钦录集》记载，永乐十七年（1419）三月初三即《永乐南藏》将近完工时，明成祖特别关照此事，“宣道成、一如等人入于西红门，钦奉圣旨：‘将藏经好生校勘明白，重要刊板，经面用湖水褐素绫’”。第二年（1420）当时的僧录司左觉义栖岩慧进上奏，说“恭惟圣朝校勘藏典，乃千载之希遇”，所以，希望皇帝“御制序文，以冠经首”，明成祖似乎很高兴，颁下“御制经序十三篇、佛菩萨赞跋十二篇，为各经之首，圣朝《佛菩萨名称佛曲》五十卷、《佛名经》作三十卷、《神僧传》作九卷，俱入藏流行”。再一年后即永乐十九年（1421），全藏大体编定，永乐皇帝便命工刊刻，并于二月初二日下旨，“你刊经板了，着你每（们）坐山去，我也结些缘”，还问：“板就那里刊好？”因为没有得到明确的回答，他便指示“就寺里刊好”，也就是在海印寺刊刻。永乐十七年到十九年的时候，雪轩道成（1352-1431）是右善世，一庵一如（1352-1425）是左阐教，栖岩慧进（1355-1436）是左觉义，编印藏经当然就是官方的事情。不过，尽管是官方行为，这部《永乐北藏》的刻印进展却很缓慢，虽然永乐皇帝早早地就给它写了序文，特别撰写了经序和佛菩萨赞跋，颁下了以他名义新编的经典，但似乎全藏的刻印要到正统五年（1440）才全部完工，那时，明成祖和继其为帝的仁宗（朱高炽）、宣宗（朱瞻基）都已经去世，由明英宗（朱祁镇）再次给它写了序文。序文中，接着明成祖《御制藏经赞》有关刻印藏经是“念皇考、皇妣生育之恩”的说法，明宣宗说明成祖“惟大孝之诚，孳孳夙夜，孔怀劬劳报本之道，图荐考妣在天之福。于是博采竺干之秘典，海藏之真诠”，如果这些例行套话说的是可信的，那么，编印这套大藏经的目的，就是为了“孔怀劬劳报本之道，图荐考妣在天之福”。这套历经永乐、洪熙、宣德、正统四朝，用了二三十年才完工的佛教大藏经，就是现在呈现在我们面前，通称《永乐北藏》的《大明三藏圣教北藏》。二说起汉文大藏经的来龙去脉，我们不妨先简略地说一下佛藏的结集、流传和汉译，再简略地介绍一下《永乐北藏》之前汉文大藏经的写本和印本。据说，在公元前479年孔子去世之前的几年，大约在公元前486年，释迦牟尼即佛陀涅槃。为了传播和捍卫佛陀思想的纯洁性，也为了统一弟子们各自相传的佛陀言论，释迦牟尼的弟子们曾经聚集在一起，对释迦牟尼的规训进行整理和归纳，有人回忆和背诵，有人质疑和确认，大致程序是：（一）回忆和背诵。由佛弟子优婆离和阿难分别诵出佛法的戒规部分和义理部分。（二）质疑和审定。经过其他佛陀弟子同意、或提出异议，然后共同认定。因此，佛经的开首语常为“如是我闻”。（三）编纂和分类。把共同认定的佛法编集出部类次第。（四）持诵与传播。由诵经者、持律者持诵宣讲。这种结集在佛陀之后的数百年中，据说经历了三次（一说四次），佛陀的演说、言谈、教导，即有关佛教思想的部分，后来叫做“经”（“达磨”，Dharma），佛陀有关宗教纪律的训导，后来叫做“律”（“毗奈耶”，Vinaya）。此外，后来对佛教思想又有种种说明和解释，这些并不是当时背诵和回忆出来的，是后来陆续产生的，这些叫做“论”（“阿毗达磨”，Abhidharma）。把经、律、论合起来，就是后来说的“三藏”，后来所谓“三藏法师”，就是指那些精通整体佛教典籍和理论的义学高僧。由于佛教在公元前几个世纪的流传中不断膨胀和分化，从原始佛教中分化出上座部和大众部，在上座部和大众部之后分化为种种派别的佛教教团，从各种部派佛教后又生出大乘和小乘。所以，为了证明自己道理的权威性，也为了藉助佛陀说法来整肃教团的纯洁性，更为了宣扬自己道理的正确性，此后的几百年中，佛教徒又有过第二次、第三次（甚至第四次）的结集，于是本来应当“如是我闻”、“出自圣口”的佛说，数量就变得非常庞大了，后世的种种新增新编的佛教论述也渐渐羼入其中。而这时已到了公元一世纪，这正是佛教传入中国的前夕。三佛教传入中国是什么时代？关于这个问题有种种说法，不过一般都同意，大概是在汉明帝永平年间（公元58-75年）即一世纪中叶。正如梁启超所说，“计自公历纪元一世纪之初，至四世纪之初约三百年间，佛教渐渐输入中国且分布于各地。然其在社会上势力极微薄”，不过从佛典汉译史上看，二世纪中叶也就是东汉桓帝、灵帝之际（147-189）相当重要，尽管佛教势力在社会上可能还很微弱，但后来蔚为大观的译经事业却渐渐开始，作为标志性的人物，安息人安世高和大月氏人支娄迦谶，在那时先后到达洛阳，并开始翻译佛经，经过一百多年，大约到280年也就是西晋统一全国的时候，译成汉文的佛经差不多有二百六十五部，四百十一卷了。再往后，从鸠摩罗什到玄奘，从南北朝到隋唐，来自异域的僧人和出身汉地的中国佛徒，陆续翻译了很多佛教经典，到了唐代开元年间，据《开元释教录》卷一的记载，“所出大小二乘三藏圣教及圣贤集传，并及失译，总二千二百七十八部，都合七千四十六卷，其见行阙本，并该前数”，这个数字可能有些夸张，后来在《至元法宝勘同总录》卷一中记载，“所出经、律、论三藏，一千四百四十部，五千五百八十六卷”，后来，各种中国僧人撰述也陆续收入佛藏，这一文献更大大膨胀。使得各种藏经尽管多寡不一，但大多在五六千卷以上。这一数量庞大的汉文佛教文献，远远超过了现存梵文、巴利文以及其他文字的佛典数量，所以汉译佛典是世界上最重要和最完整的佛教文献。而佛典汉译也一直是印度佛教在中国输入和传播中最具意义的事情，在各种《高僧传》中首先立的就是译经者的传记，可见，古代中国对于翻译和介绍外来思想的人是很看重的。不过，从南北朝到隋唐，虽然都大规模地收集、整理和登录佛教的书，不过那时没有刻板印刷的技术，所以都是手钞本，我们看到敦煌藏经洞里面成千上万的佛教经典，就是手钞的。当然，到了唐代，渐渐便有一些零星的佛典刻印，现在还有一些残片保存在中国、日本和韩国。真正完整地刻印大藏经，则是在宋代开宝四年（971）以后了。这时下距正统五年（1440）完工的《永乐北藏》，有近五百年。在这五百年间，中国和朝鲜陆陆续续出现了好些官方刻印的或寺院刻印的藏经，官方刻印的，如开宝藏、契丹藏、元官藏，以及前面提到的洪武藏，而寺院刻印的像现在还可以看到的赵城金藏、碛砂藏、高丽藏等等。四《永乐北藏》就是前述若干种藏经之后，在明初由官方刻印的一种佛教大藏经。《永乐北藏》从《大般若波罗蜜多经》到《大明三藏法数》，共收录了佛教典籍包括翻译的佛典和中国佛教的著作共一千六百十五部六千三百六十一卷，分装六百三十六函。它以千字文编号，先以经、律、论三藏分，包括（一）“大乘经”五百三十七部（依次是般若部、法华部、华严部、宝积部、涅槃部所谓大乘五大部）；（二）“小乘经”二百三十九部；（三）“宋元入藏诸大小乘经”三百部（以上经）；（四）“大乘律”二十五部；（五）“小乘律”五十九部（以上律）；（六）“大乘论”九十三部；（七）“小乘论”三十七部；（八）“宋元续入藏诸论”二十三部（以上论）。然后再加上（九）“西土圣贤撰集”一百四十七部，（十）“此土著述”一百五十五部，一共为十大类。与《永乐南藏》相比，门类相同，只是“西土圣贤撰集”从经部后面的第四类，挪到了所有经、律、论之后作为第九类，所收的经典也互有不同。《北藏》为梵夹本，每版二十五行，分为五折，每折五行，每行十七字，不仅版框加高，字体加大，而且校勘七次。在装帧上，它也比《永乐南藏》更加考究，以绫作封面，突出了皇家的气派。由于它藏在京城，一直是作为朝赐给各地寺院的供奉品，比《永乐南藏》允许私家捐资印刷供养，更具有官方色彩。应当注意到，明代洪武、永乐两朝的宗教制度相当严格，虽然明太祖和明成祖始终对佛教并没有打压之意，尤其是明成祖因为道衍（姚广孝）的缘故，对佛教相当有好感，但正如姚广孝所说，“上自开国以来，万机之暇，留心圣教，设官分司以理其众，鉏奸剔虫，欲复古规”，即站在世俗皇权的立场坚持限制佛教扩张。洪武之初，朝曾反复抨击“释老二教，近代崇尚太过，徒众日繁，安坐而食，蠹财耗民”，并且规定祠部“掌祭祀医药丧葬僧道度牒”，对取得僧尼道冠资格的知识给出严格要求，“天下僧尼道士女冠，凡五万七千二百余人，皆给度牒，以防伪滥”。我们就知道，在明代初期皇权膨胀的时候，佛教基本上是在官方严格控制之下的。特别是胡惟庸案之后，洪武十四年设立僧录司，洪武十五年规定佛寺为讲、教、禅三种，规定天下僧道服色，洪武二十四年，一方面规定天下生员的冠服之制，使儒家学人统一化；另一方面发布《佛教榜册》，说明佛教本是“中国之异教”，严禁僧人“与俗混淆，与常人无异”，并在洪武二十八年规定天下沙门要分考试上、中、下三科，佛教更是在官方严格的管理之下，这种佛教政策一直延续到永乐年间。前面曾经提到，参与《永乐北藏》编订的，正是一批经官方认定的合法佛教领袖，雪轩道成在洪武年间曾经担任过青州道纲、僧录司右讲经，在永乐初年还奉旨出使日本，原驻天界寺，明成祖特意招他去北京，任僧录司右善世，主持大藏经的编集刻印；一庵一如是大报恩寺都讲，与明成祖的重要谋臣姚广孝关系极好，姚是亦僧亦俗的奇人，而称一如是“两浙一人”，可见他的声望。他在编刻北藏中似乎是主要人物，他主持编纂了《大明三藏法数》四十卷。栖岩慧进是被明成祖看中，特意征召到南京天界寺和灵谷寺作为青年僧人的导师，并参与纂修《大明三藏法数》，后又随同到北京，成为“领袖天下僧众”的僧官。其他一些僧人，如庵进、思扩、法主甚至一些校雠僧人，也是经过礼部或僧录司挑选，经过皇帝认可的。从后来的数据看，他们在编纂和校勘中，时时事事要请示，不仅原来宋代藏经中原有宋太宗若干佛教著作如《缘识》、《逍遥咏》等五种不再收入，而收录了以明成祖即永乐皇帝名义编的《诸佛世尊如来菩萨尊者神僧名经》四十卷、《诸佛世尊如来菩萨尊者名称歌曲》五十卷、《神僧传》九卷，而佛教史书《佛祖统纪》、禅宗著述《续传灯录》、《古尊宿语录》、《禅宗颂古联珠集》以及元代白云宗僧人的《白云和尚初学集》等，却奉永乐之旨不再收入藏经。显然，在作为明代新首都的北京，凸显新朝皇帝之无上权威，一批新权贵僧侣接受旨意，为新王朝编纂新圣典，印制出一套较《南藏》更加豪华的佛教藏经，作为朝颁赐寺院的经典，是在有意识地呈现和传达官方佛教立场和宗教政策。五尽管《永乐北藏》的编纂刻印中体现的是明代官方佛教立场和宗教政策，但一大部藏经却毕竟是佛教文献汇编，如果研究佛教思想和历史，它仍是明以前佛教资料宝库。不过，这里需要提醒读者的是，并不是所有“如是我闻”的佛教经典都是佛说，并不是所有佛教的记载都是信史。指出这一点是为了更好地让读者使用大藏经。研究佛典的学者早就指出，佛教典籍虽以“闻如是”为始，以“信受奉行”为终，其实往往是形式上假托佛说，实际上，大多乃佛教徒在历史中的一系列创作。所以，这里面有再三删补、改订、重译、注疏甚至伪造，这些记录、删补、改订、重译、注疏甚至伪造，一代又一代，口耳相传、文字笔录、翻译纂辑，最后综合起来便成为现在大家看到的庞大藏经。因此，在阅读佛藏的时候要意识到，这里包含了若干种种不同状态的佛典：被翻译成汉文的早期佛教经、律、论，被翻译的大乘佛教的著述，中国佛教伪撰早期印度撰述，即古人所说的“疑经”和“伪经”，以及中国佛教徒自己的著作。所以，一部大藏经，是历史层层迭迭构成的，它就是一部“经典传译史”加上一部“思想诠释史”。也许，可以介绍给读者日本学者小野玄妙有关佛典历史的七原则，他在《佛教经典总论》第三部“大藏经概说”之第二章“根本佛典小考”中提出：一、佛教经典是随着时代，一部一部次第形成的。二、作者并非仅一二人，形成的年代也各不相同。三、作为无名著作的经、律，与署名著作的论同为佛教典籍，应同样看待。四、佛教著作的地点不一，有印度、中印、南印、西印、北印，也有中亚、西域及其他地方。五、中国传译的经论，并非仅仅翻译的旧典，也有新出的著作。六、逆向上溯中国佛典翻译的历史，可以看作经典著作的历史，能够窥见经典形成的历史。七、前后约一千年的佛教经典著作历史，透过中国传译史，大体上即可把握不错的佛教史概念。《永乐北藏》也可以作如是观。六永乐到正统年间陆续刻印的《北藏》，一个半世纪之后又进行了一次增补。据僧人本在的说法，明神宗万历十一年（1583），依照酷爱佛教的万历生母慈圣宣文明肃皇太后与万历皇帝本人的旨意，“请出大明续入藏经四十二函”（编号的是四十一函，有一函不计入），基本上是中国佛教徒自己的著述，一共有三十六部、四百一十卷，作为《北藏》的续编，经过一年时间补刻出来，并分赐各个寺院。对于佛教史研究者来说，这批补刻入藏的文献尤其可贵，比如，原来被永乐禁止入藏的《佛祖统纪》、《续传灯录》、《古尊宿语录》、《禅宗颂古联珠集》等等佛教尤其是禅宗史研究中的重要史料，被重新收录进来。因此，我们今天看到的新印《永乐北藏》，就包括了永乐至正统年间刻印的大藏经和万历年间补刻的续藏经两部分，总数就达到一千六百五十一部、六千七百七十一卷。也许，在各种大藏经中，《永乐北藏》并不特别受重视，但应当指出的是，它校勘较精，装帧精美，收录也有明代特点，还是很有价值的。特别可以一提的是《永乐北藏》的目录即《大明三藏圣教北藏目录》四卷（后来被收录在《大正新修大藏经》第八十七册《昭和法宝总目录》第二册中），它就是日本明治时期著名佛教学者南条文雄所编，1882年在英国牛津出版的英文佛教目录的基础，南条文雄只是在它的基础上逐书编号，补充说明，并加英译，所以，它也是在世界上最早被流传的汉文佛藏目录。历代由朝下令编辑的庞大丛书，无论是儒家的、佛教的还是道教的，它们不仅呈现着那个时代的知识取向，宣示着那个时代的知识世界，还让后世理解那个时代的知识水平。尽管此后的朝代还会有后来居上、更大更全的丛书，但在这个历史的角度看，就像地质学上的“地层”一样，每一层都有每一层的意义。《永乐北藏》正藏印出已经五百七十年，续藏刻印也已经四百二十多年了。现在，尽管各种旧的大藏经一套一套被影印出来，新的大藏经也被一次又一次编纂起来，但是，这部四五百年以前明代官方刻印的大藏经，作为基本佛教典籍的汇编，作为一部经过较好校勘的藏经，尤其是作为明代佛教知识的见证，我想，它仍然有其价值。上海书店出版社这次以《永乐北藏》为底本，参考了《乾隆大藏经》等版本，又经过校订与核对，推出这部《佛藏》，意在为弘扬、普及中国佛教文化。上海书店出版社的编辑告诉我，1988年他们整理出版了胡道静先生作序的《道藏》，在出版界、学术界、读书界取得持续的好评。这次整理影印出版《佛藏》，要我写几句话，我也借此谈谈《永乐北藏》以及汉文大藏经的发展情况，借以勾勒佛教文化在中国传播的大致脉络。是为序。

尽管从语言和经济学方面看，一本半个世纪以前写就的著作在今天可能会不大好理解，但波兰尼所提出的问题和视野并没有丧失它的卓越性。

医疗外交一直是中国走向世界时的先行者。自1963年应阿尔及利亚政府之邀派出第一支医疗小队以来，中国已向亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲、欧洲和大洋洲的69个国家派出20679名医生。其中最主要的受援方为非洲，这是中国在1949年后，为在反殖民运动中扩大政治影响力，寻求独立于西方帝国主义的国家联盟的直接成果。 而在过去的50年间，中国全球医疗援助的意图已发生了改变。如今的中国政府已认识到，参与国际医疗援助可建立中国作为全球福利贡献者的形象。而中国经济的持续高速发展，也有赖于非洲和拉丁美洲丰富的自然资源。既然早期基于支持民族解放的医疗外交已有深厚基础，那么现在中国则可借由那些非传统的安全威胁——比如海外疫情，来培养其“软实力”，维持国内稳定和经济增长。 2003年的SARS疫情让中国政府意识到全球性卫生问题的严重性。自那时起，中国就开始有意识地将其医疗外交的版图向那些可发展紧密经济联系的地区扩展，尤其是东南亚以及非洲、拉美一些资源丰富的国家。中国提供的医疗援助包括医疗基础设施的建设、中医的传播、对当地医疗专业人员的训练等。在海地、智利的地震以及尼泊尔、巴基斯坦洪灾时，中国都在人道救援上做出了积极的行动。 中国在有限的资源条件下，实现了国内卫生水平的大幅度提升，这对其他发展中国家是很好的借鉴。但同样也有很多因素制约着中国在全球医疗事业中的脚步，中国已超过日本，成为世界第二大经济体，这就意味着富起来的国民要求更好更多的医疗资源。同时城乡差距也是前所未见的，如今的中国依然有1.5亿人生活在贫困线以下。中国网民认为，比起非洲，这些国民更需要政府的援助。同时，中国并无一个如美国国际发展中心那样的机构来专门从事医疗外交。由于医疗援助往往是商务活动的一部分，中国的商务部、卫生部以及省级医疗部门都参与到了这一过程中，这种状态使得中国的医疗援助组织化程度低并难以评估。 尽管中国当前的医疗外交战略已逐渐重视透明和合作，但“不干涉内政”依然是其参与全球健康问题的核心信条。中国无政治附加条件式的援助，限制了系统解决援助国问题的机会，因此面临着国际社会的压力。但它依然受到那些正在经历政治挑战的国家的欢迎。 以非洲为例，中国2009年对非洲的援助额较2006年已翻倍。调查显示非洲大部分国家的国民对中国很有好感。同时对国内的制药工业来讲，非洲是稳步成长的市场。中国对非洲的医疗产品出口额已从2001年的1.9亿上升到2009年的11.4亿。 对美国而言，中国海外医疗援助同样提供了潜在的合作空间。艾滋、肺结核，霍乱以及世界银行的援助项目上，美中两国应增加合作，并就透明化和政府责任等问题展开更广泛的对话。   CSIS 全球健康政策中心 2010年12月发布 （该中心将于2011年3月召开讨论如何推动美国在全球卫生事业中的领导者地位。）

 2009年12月15～16日，中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所主办的“俄罗斯东欧中亚与世界高层论坛”在北京举行。来自全国40多所科研机构与高等院校的l00余名专家学者参加了这次论坛。现将论坛讨论的有关问题综述如下。 政治部分 关于俄罗斯的政治局势。与会者认为，俄罗斯的政局基本是稳定的，这与梅普组合直接相关。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所吴恩远研究员认为，分析俄罗斯政局的稳定，首先要界定政治稳定的概念。如果说指的是制度性的变动、政局替换、大规模的街头政治甚至内乱，那么俄罗斯在下一届大选之前肯定不会出现这样的情况。但是俄罗斯政局在保持总体稳定的情况下仍然隐含着变数，梅普关系是影响这种变数的一个重要因素。从内因看，俄罗斯经济在可预见的将来很难有大的改观，普京作为总理难辞其咎。梅普在治国理念有较大差异，梅德韦杰夫更倾向于西方的自由民主理念，俄罗斯有学者甚至将他与戈尔巴乔夫相提并论;而普京更强调威权政治。这种差异也影响到干部体制的变化。另外，社会舆论发生了变化，上层学者之间的激烈论争会加大梅普在许多问题上的分歧。从外因看，奥巴马上台后对俄罗斯的核心利益给予了一定的宽容，会使梅德韦杰夫在一定程度上改变对西方的态度，从而影响到俄罗斯的内政。 上海社会科学院潘大渭研究员认为，俄罗斯国内政局的稳定与下列因素有关。首先，从权力结构形成的过程来看，叶利钦把权柄交给普京并不是个人的选择，而是对俄罗斯对外政策和国内发展方向做出反思后才决定的。第二，普京在执政八年中构建了一个相对稳定的政治领导层，它所起的稳定作用实际上超出了我们的想象。第三，梅德韦杰夫基本上沿袭了普京的执政理念和发展道路。另外从社会层面看，俄罗斯社会结构的变化趋于稳定，社会心理趋于成熟，改变了过去那种彷徨、不知所措的状况。 新华社盛世良研究员认为，在梅普组合中梅德韦杰夫并没有成为一个非常独立的政治家，政治上还处于从属地位。从干部队伍来看，普京任命的干部占77．4％，梅德韦杰夫任命的只有9．4％；从权力资源看，普京控制的是政府的经济板块、议会、政权党、审计署、地区议会，梅德韦杰夫控制的主要是总统办、安全会议和强力部门。因此，不管是干部资源还是权力资源，基本上还是普京的。 中国国际问题研究基金会副会长于振起先生则认为，现在是“没有普京的普京时代”。所谓梅普组合出现问题,在相当程度上是美国制造的，其目的就是要挑唆梅普之间的关系。奥巴马访俄时的一些举动有着明确的政治意图，梅普之后的公开亮相很大程度上消除了外界的疑虑。如果当初普京有继续连任总统的野心，他完全可以效仿卢卡申科；他选定梅德韦杰夫作为接班人，表明他对梅德韦杰夫以及自己的政治基础有充分的信心。 关于俄罗斯政治进程及发展道路。中国社会科学院张树华研究员认为，俄罗斯的未来的社会发展道路，包括政治发展道路，还处在探索之中，它的发展方向和目标没有最终定型。与此相关，作为理论支撑的历史观、发展观和价值观等方面也没有定型。从社会层面来看，俄罗斯还没有形成良好的社会机制，市场、机制等各方面的制度建设还差得很远,在一二十年中都难以建立起来。 复旦大学杨心宇教授认为，从法学的角度来看，从普京到梅德韦杰夫的这个时期是一个新制度的建构过程，2008年11月俄罗斯纪念l993年宪法的颁布，给两个主要起草的领导人授予了国家最高荣誉勋章，这说明制度的构建要树立宪法的权威。俄罗斯的宪法不一定跟民主相联系，它是跟制度、法制联系在一起的。这些年普京与梅德韦杰夫的政治实践．其实是在建梅一种稳定的政治结构、社会结构和政权结构，为今后的发展建立一个稳定的法制与秩序条件。 中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所薛福岐博士认为，梅德韦杰夫就任总统以来所提出的改革措施，都是一些技术性的安排，从来都没有涉及到普京体制的根本，俄罗斯政治发展的现状是使最高权力稳定延续下去。作为政权党的“统一俄罗斯”党，其作用是整合国内的政治精英，将精英之间的分歧和竞争控制在一定的范围之内，从而保持政治的基本稳定，使俄罗斯的政治发展变的可以预测。 盛世良研究员认为，俄罗斯的政治发展处于一种矛盾的境地，2009年俄罗斯的经济表现不论在七国，几国还是二十国集团当中都是最差的。俄罗斯认识到它的经济很脆弱，主要不是世界金融危机的影响，而是自身的问题；而且今年它的国际环境变化更为恶劣。在这种情况下，俄罗斯的政治似乎要发生变化，但这种变化的可能性又不是很大。梅德韦杰夫在9月10号发表《俄罗新，前进！》，大谈自由、民主和法制，基调跟普京有根大的距离。但是三个多月过去了，其实并没有大的变化，如果俄罗斯真要经济现代化，那就要跟西方改善关系，但这又会跟它现在的政治体制发生很大的矛盾。因此俄罗斯的经济现代化将非常困难。 关于俄罗斯的政治思潮。中国社会科学院外国文学所董晓阳研究员认为，近些年来俄罗斯无论上层的指导思想还是社会思潮，都出现了回归传统观念的倾向，这是在俄罗新社会制度变化以及走向现代化过程中一个非常重要的和必然的表现。对斯大林的评价虽然是一个正视历史的问题，但并不只是一个历史问题，它体现了俄罗斯社会和上层追求社会发展的完整性与价值观的回归。另外，它不仅仅是国内的进程，也是关涉到苏联在世界历史进程中，特别是在二战中的历史地位的评价问题，因此也是一个国际化的问题。 杨心宇教授认为，俄罗斯对斯大林问题、苏联历史问题的重新审视是出于三方面的目的。首先是要寻求历史的客观真实，维护俄罗斯民族的自尊，防止在历史中形成一个巨大的污点，在道义上处于一种弱势地位。第二，说明斯大林和苏联时期他们的做法的历史背景和历史理由，比如在李宾特洛甫和莫洛托夫条约上，俄罗斯强调在战争期间要维护自己的利益只能这样做，即使说不道义，但也没有别的办法。这种解释不能说是为斯大林平反。第三，俄罗斯需要澄清一些问题，防止被进一步妖魔化。 关于俄罗斯东欧政治研究的内容与方法。华东师范大学冯绍雷教授提出了俄罗斯东欧中亚研究方面的多项议题。首先，如何判断俄罗新东欧中亚地区20年的政治转型？政治转型中一个突出的问题是政党体制，它究竟已经成熟稳定，还是处于形成之中？其次，从l989年到1991年推动前苏联和东欧地区改革的思潮背景主要是新自由主义，20年后对这种思潮究竟该给以何种评价？思潮变迁对一个国家内部体制构建的影响力到底如何？第三，对于政治转型过程当中的各种要素值得做一些深入的分析，如国家与市民社会的关系、领袖的作用、知识分子以及其他一些群体是的形成和互动，等等。 美于中东欧局势。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所高歌研究员认为，2009年中东欧国家的政治发展继续按原既定的轨道，即向多党制和议会制推进。一些国家进行了议会和总统选举，但没有大的政治波折。从20年历程来看，中东欧国家政治发展的轨迹比较明显；这种既定的发展方向未来也不会改变。中东欧国家的政治发展与俄罗斯不同，受外部环境的影响非常大。一战以来几次重大的道路选择受外界的影响非常大，l989年后在道路的选择上固然与国内政治力量的对比有关，但欧盟的作用不可忽视。 关于独联体局势。中国社会科学院东欧中亚研究所赵常庆研究员总结了2009年中亚地区的局势。他认为，虽然金融危机给中亚各国带来了不少问题，但中亚地区的政治局势基本稳定。一个主要的原因是政权力量相当大，反对派力量非常弱小。中亚各国的安全形势没有太大变化，美国增兵阿富汗，将塔利班武装压缩在南方地区。这对中亚国家的安全形势较为有利。同时由于阿富汗战争的缘故，中亚地区的战略地位有所上升。于振起副会长认为，2009年独联体国家的政治形势比较平静、稳定，明年唯一值得关注的是乌克兰大选，大选的结果直接关系到乌克兰的国家发展方向。 经济部分 关于俄罗斯状况。根据中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所陆南泉研究员的分析，2009年俄罗斯经济遭受了严重的冲击，2000～2008年间，俄罗斯经济一直保持较快的增长。2008年第三、四季度，在金融危机的冲击下，GDP仍保持5．6％增长率．8008年末2009年初，社会各界普遍认为，2009年俄罗斯经济会有所下降，但不至于剧烈滑坡。然而，金融危机对俄罗斯经济的冲击却出乎预料，俄罗斯经济在2009年遭到重创，自2000年以来首次出现负增长，下滑幅度超过了二十国集团及金砖四国。2009年1月至10月，GDP同比下降9．6％；棒德韦杰夫估计，2009年降幅为7．5％；世界银行认为降幅可达8. 7％。俄罗斯甚至认为，其经济跻身于金砖四国已名不符实。 俄罗斯经济危机的形成路径。上海国际问题研究院李新研究员认为，俄罗斯本次经济危机由外部输入，首先在金融部门引发，然后对实体部门形成冲击，国际金融危机爆发引起外资抽逃，导致金融市场崩溃．2008年9月19日，证券指数暴跌42％。证券市场的危机产生了以下四方面影响：一是卢布汇率贬值，发生银行挤兑，卢布储蓄转变为外汇储蓄。2009年10月，银行总存款的6％被提走。二是削弱了银行提供贷款的能力。证券暴跌带来的损失，占银行总资本的l0％～20％。三是降低了俄罗斯企业在国内外通过有价证券获取抵押贷款的能力．四是由于先前提供抵押贷款的证券严重贬值，恶化了公司外债状况。随后，金融部门的危机蔓延到实体经济部门，建筑业和冶金行业首先遭到冲击。能源、原材料国际价格大幅下跌，导致俄罗斯能源和原材料出口下降，冶金采矿业大量裁员。金融部门的危机，引发了流动性危机，产品销售困难，许多企业减产、停产，甚至破产倒闭，失业大幅上升。2009年1月至9月．俄罗斯GDP下降l0％。2009年上半年，全球主要经济体中，只有俄罗斯衰退超过l0％。 俄罗斯2009年经济受重创的原因。与会者认为，可以从四个方面来进行分析。第一，俄罗斯经济的对外依赖性与出口结构问题。俄虽然不是WT0成员，但全球化程度已很深。对外资的依赖程度达50％～70％，对外贸易是支撑其经济增长的重要因素。2009年1月至10月，俄罗斯对外贸易下降了41．1％，其中，出口下降42．3％，进口下降38．9％，俄罗斯出口结构问题更为严重，2009年1～10月，能源出口占出口总额的66．3％；由于国际油气价格大幅下跌，俄能源部门向财政提供的资金剧减，2009年1～9月，俄罗斯进口的机器设备比同期下降53．9％，其次，内需乏力，金融危机以来，俄罗新试图通过增加投资，向银行发放贷款、降低税务等途径刺激经济，但效果不明显。随着财政状况的恶化，国家预算款项难以落实，已有43个联邦主体托欠工资，居民购买力降低，零售商品流转额大幅下降。第三，实体经济大幅萎缩。俄罗斯对企业投入了1万亿卢布。但仍未能顶住金融危机的冲击。2009年1～10月，俄工业产值下降了l3．7亿美元，大多数重要的工业产品大幅度下降。第四，经济结构问题，长期以来，俄罗斯仍未改变以出口能源、原材料为主导的经济发展模式。本次危机中，俄罗新的荷兰病表现得非常明显，在整个苏联时代，选种畸形的经济结构一直没能解决。要改变这种经济结构，是非常困难的。 对俄罗斯发展模式的反思。李新研究员认为，经济原料化的发展模式与经济自由化的战略构成了俄罗斯经济危机的根源。20世纪90年代，俄金融领域实行自由化，国家对金融的干预、监督几乎成为盲点。于是危机首先从金融部门，通过自由化渠道转移到国内。2006年7月1日，俄罗斯政府实现了卢布的完全自由兑换，打开了俄罗斯市场的最后一道闸门，20世纪90年代，俄罗斯选择了错误的改革战略，在改革过程中形成的资本主义模式，再一次经历着严重危机，21世纪前7年，俄经济快速发展，外部市场行情良好，精英阶层难以清醒地判别新自由主义的优劣，对其新自由主义改革能力的极限难以准确衡量。因此未对国内经济结构进行调整。俄罗斯的改革者只相信市场，只关心金融的自由化。然而，对实体经济的发展，则缺乏长期思路。 对俄罗斯经济前景的预测。国际能源价格的变动对俄经济前景具有重大影响，根据国际油价的变化情况以及国际市场的能源、原材料的需求的变动，与会者对俄罗斯经济发展趋势有两种估计：一种是U型或者V型。油价稳定上升，俄罗斯经济复苏；另一种估计是，油价跌至每桶40美元，经济前景可能呈现W型。与会学者的共同的看法是，2010年俄罗斯的经济形势将优于09年，世界经济形势的好转将对俄罗斯经济产生直接影响，使2010年的经济形势有所改善。 关于中东欧经济形势。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所孔田平研究员认为，中东欧经济在2009年陷入全面衰退，但未出现极端严重的恶化。之所以如此，一是过去20年中东欧国家建立了市场经济框架，其制度效应仍在发挥作用；二是外国银行的存在对中东欧经济起到了稳定作用，西欧银行未把资金大量撤回，使金融部门保持了相对健康；三是外国直接投资仍保持相当大的存量，未出现大规模撤资的现象，这是非常重要的稳定因素；四是经济政策比较得当，及时调整了财政、货币政策，增加了金融部门的流动性；五是反危机的国际协调支持了困境中的中东欧国家；六是外部经济环境有所改善，从第二季度起，中东欧国家的出口市场——法国和德国，出现了经济复苏的迹象，孔田平研究员认为，在发展模式上，作为小型开放经济体，中东欧国际对外贸与外资的依赖格局难以发生根本改变。在东西欧金融一体化方面，过去l0年中，西欧的商业银行控制了中东欧国家的大多数商业银行，促进了中东欧经济的增长，但是东西欧之间金融的密切联系，有可能加剧危机的传播，在经挤结构的多元化与多样化方面，近年来中东欧很多国家过度依赖于汽车制造业，一旦西欧经济不景气，汽车销售必然受到冲击。中东欧国家的转轨已无法逆转，在金融危机的强烈冲击下有可能放缓，但不会出现严重的政治动荡或政治危机，该地区的宪政民主框架也不会遭到强有力的挑战。 中亚2009年经济形势。新疆社会科学院院胡红萍副研究员对中亚五国的经济进行了评估。首先，经济增幅剧降。哈萨克斯坦受到的冲击最为严重。塔吉克斯坦，吉尔吉斯斯坦、土库曼斯坦经济均大幅下挫。乌兹别克斯坦经济较为封闭，金融体系较保守，受危机冲击最轻。其次，外贸出口受到严重冲击，国际原材料价格大幅下跌，导或哈萨克斯坦和土库曼斯坦原材料出口大幅下滑。由于原材料和生产需求下降，中亚国家的能源和原材料收入悦减，乌兹别克斯坦的鞠花出口、塔吉克斯坦的铝制品出口均大幅下滑。第三，金融信贷体系受到冲击，大量热钱外逃，导致哈萨克斯坦金融业流动性危机，银行无款可贷，面临全面破产，只能靠国家基金维持运转。第四，工业生产大幅下滑，引发大量失业，加深了该地区的贫困化程度。第五，房地产价格回调。第六，境外劳务收入减少。由于俄、哈两国受到金融危机的沉重打击，吉尔吉斯斯坦和塔吉克斯坦在俄、哈的务工人员被迫回国，劳务汇款下降。随着劳务收入下降，两国经济面临困境。 2009年是中亚各国非常困难的一年。下半年形势有所改善，部分得益于中亚国家采取了一些较为有效的反危机政策，但其主要原因是，2009年下半年，国际市场能源、原材料价格回升，从总体看，中亚各国当前的经济形势仍不容乐观。 外交部分 关于中俄美三边关系。对中俄美“三边”，抑或“三角”关系这个概念，有一些不同看法，中国国际问题研究基金会王海运主任认为中俄美三角关系客观上是存在的。中俄美分量相当，可以构成三角关系，三者之间也存在互动关系。中国的国际战略运筹也必须建立在这样一个基本判断上。中美关系发展正在加深俄罗斯本来已经存在的战略疑虑，俄罗斯对中美关系的疑虑一向很深。现在这个问题就更加突出，俄罗斯大国主义情节很强，把G2看成是对其大国地位的贬损，第二种观点倾向于不使用三角关系这个概念，主张淡化它。李静杰研究员认为，现在中俄、中美关系无论内容，实质都和以前不同。中国没有完全倒向美国，中美也有共同利益。复旦大学赵华胜教授坚持表示，中俄美三边是存在的，但就2009年这个时段量来看，中俄美三边淡化了，因为三边基本上是一个地缘政治的概念，在金融危机背景下，经济是今年国际政治的主题。 北京师范大学李兴教授提出一个双向双线同盟的概念。冷战时期的结盟，或者源于共同威胁，或是为了得到红利。而现在的结盟，是为了完成某项战略任务。他认为现在的中俄、中美关系具有双向同盟的特点。外交学院杨闯教授则表示，中俄战略协作伙伴关系似乎不等于同盟，中美中俄间也没有条约义务． 关于中俄关系。一种观点认为中俄关系的重要性是不可替代的。王海运主任认为对俄罗斯中国必须高度重视，俄罗斯对中国的战略价值不可替代。无论从安全战略，发展战略来说都是这样，设想如果失去俄罗斯这样一个战略伙伴，这些年，中国将是什么处境？今后若干年在国际大变动中中国将是什么样的处境？这个是要考虑的。4300公里的共同边境，这是最重要的地缘战略现实，这个改变不了。北方邻国对我国及其重要，必须像重视中美关系那样重视中俄关系，中国的地缘战略现实，中国实现民族复兴，中国对国际环境的需求，要求我们同时处理好对美对俄关系。动态地决定对美对俄关系中各项事务的轻重缓急。而不是一定是一对关系服从另一对关系。 李静杰研究员提出一个独特的视角。他认为世界上大多数国家，都有华人、华侨，中国城，只有俄罗斯没有，而俄罗斯还是我们的邻国。去了没多少人，就大喊中国移民威胁。他特别表示，对俄对美外交要很好平衡，避免出现偏差。同时，他提出中俄关系不能建立在第三国的基础上，应该建立在一个理性的框架上，这个框架就是我们是邻居，必须友好相处，这是最可靠的。 杨闯教授表示，要珍视中俄战略伙伴关系，4300公里的共同边界不能改变，这为政治互信，发展全面关系打定了基础。尽管俄在军品贸易上还对中国保持戒心。但是也应看到，金融危机后，两国在能源领域合作领域还是取得了进展。中国进口能源多元化和俄罗斯能源出口多元化有不完全一致的地方，但是中国和俄罗斯能源合作的前景还是很好。中国有些方面不能盲目跟随俄罗斯，例如阿布哈兹和南奥赛梯问题，中国没有承认，这是坚持独立自主外交的一个体现。 中国国际问题研究所陈玉荣研究员认为，要倚重中俄关系这条线，周边安全是第一位的考虑．中俄关系对多极化、上合组织、中国西北东北安全至关重要，中俄有很多共识，这与美国有很大的差异。解决俄罗斯的疑虑，主要是两个问题：一是战略互信，例如G2，二是中国威胁论，对于贸易结构不平衡的同题，中国要做解释工作。 军事科学院陈学惠研究员主张，今后应少用拓展利益这种提法，这是传统的地缘政治思维。维护国家利益的提法更好一些。中国不能走过去大国的旧路，应走一条新路。 赵华胜教授表示，中俄关系今年有几个特点。一是低级政治越来越影响到高级政治。二是中国开始占了主动，包括在能源领域。另外，几个具体的事件，新星号事件、大市场事件，G2的提出、中国中亚管道的开通，都对中俄关系有比较大的影响。 关于俄美关系。李静杰研究员认为，一个国家的崛起，压是压不住的，俄美主要是两个基本矛盾：一个战略平衡，一个地缘政治。戈尔巴乔夫当年提出新思维，同意开放柏林墙，一个约定是北约不东扩。西方不遵守，俄罗斯也没有办法。北约东扩，先到东欧国家，再到前苏联国家，俄国人也说，如果乌克兰加入北约，俄罗斯就回到了莫斯科大公国那个时代。俄罗斯还是不能接受苏联解体，还是视原苏联为自己的势力范围，希望重新一体化。西方则希望固化苏联解体。这个地缘政治现实不会改变。俄与美主要是这两个矛盾。 杨闯教授认为，美国对外政策变化有，但基本的美国战略目标没有改变。就是美国要充当世界的领导，充当世界的霸主；维持美元在世界的中心地位，这不会改变。美俄基本战略矛盾没有改变。今年美国在中欧导弹问题上做了一个调整，来换取年底前签署第一阶段削减战略武器条约新约，但是美俄在欧洲的基本战略矛盾没有改变。 陈玉荣研究员认为，2009年俄美关系有变化，有调整。两国关系从俄格战争的紧张关系中走了出来。美国在东欧反导问题上作了让步，俄美也签署了通过俄境向阿富汗运输军需物资的条约。俄美结构性矛盾没有发生变化，策略上有变化。 关于中东欧国家、俄罗斯与北约东扩。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所朱晓中研究员认为，国内在探讨俄与欧盟关系时，对中东欧的因素注意不够。现在有新老欧洲的说法，尽管很多欧洲人不承认，但事实上是存在的。以波兰为首的新东欧有抱负的国家，对欧盟对外关系起了重要作用，波兰对欧俄关系．起了一定阻碍甚至负面作用。在欧盟和美国的关系中，则起了排头兵的作用。中东欧国家在欧盟里面，又和美国结盟。现在中东欧国家在军事政治上靠拢美国，在政治经济上和欧洲联盟站在一起，这样将对欧洲一体化施加某种干扰性的作用。2008年以来，俄罗斯以石油为武器．部分返回东欧，现在参与俄罗斯输气计划的有保加利亚、匈牙利、斯洛文尼亚。以后，欧盟的对俄政策，能源政策，都会有中东欧国家的影子。目前看，在欧盟对俄的关系中，新东欧的作用不太好。今后，欧盟对俄外交很难有一个顺畅的决策过程。俄与欧盟最基本的矛盾是欧盟和俄罗斯到底视对方为什么角色。2004年，欧盟扩大，俄将欧盟视为北约的附属品，相互信任发生改变。当年普京第二任期开始，俄罗斯对欧盟的政策发生了一个大的转变。2004年之前俄罗斯视欧盟为值得效仿的经济楷模，2004年后，俄罗斯强调第三条道路，俄式民主，变成斯拉夫主义者，这是一个实质性的转变。 争论比较多的是北约东扩。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所郑羽研究员认为，北约东扩初期应包含四个意图：美国在欧洲的领导权问题；解决欧洲的德国还是德国的欧洲问题；冷战后东欧不稳定的问题；对俄罗斯帝国潜在的担心。对北约东扩，考虑到俄罗斯的担忧，也考虑到中东欧国家的担忧，现在中国表示不赞成用扩大军事同盟方式来解决冷战后的安全问题。这个表述是适当的。中东欧国家的行为，更多的是考虑1985年以前苏联外交政策和文化而做出的判断。l991年以来，俄罗斯外交政策对中东欧国家基本没有敌视或歧视性行为，但是中东欧国家对俄罗斯还是不放心。看来，中东欧国家和俄国都需要新的思维，新的观念。 中央党校左凤荣教授提出，北约东扩这个问题，中国不能跟着俄罗斯的观点走。似乎也应该从中东欧国家的角度看这个问题，理解他们对自己安全利益的担忧，理解他们自主的选择。北京大学关贵海教授认为，现在虽然俄罗斯政策对东欧没有造成威胁，但俄罗斯有历史错误，历史形成的错误要相当长的时间去修正。民族的历史记忆不会三年五年就消除。 李兴教授认为，冷战思维双方都有，东欧小国也有冷战思维，北约内部也保留了这种思维。中东欧强国也有跟着强国走的传统。过去紧跟苏联，现在跟美国，都有这个因素。说东欧搞社会主义完全是苏联压迫，也不符合事实。陈学惠研究员表示，关键问题是，用集团政治的方法解决安全问题合适不合适？维持欧洲安全有两种观点，一种是欧洲采取的，冷战思维。另一种是俄罗斯提出来的，集体安全。俄罗斯现在又有新的提法。问题是，没有俄罗斯赞成的欧洲安全体系是不是真正的安全体系？北约到底是维护欧洲还是维护欧洲以外的安全？科索沃事件后北约在欧洲无事可干，现在跑到阿富汗。北约目标发生了转变。中东欧加入北约目的何在，加入能省钱吗？实际上代价是很高的，短期的代价非常高，因为要按北约的标准重组军队。 阿富汗问题。一种观点认为，如果美国在阿富汗得手，那北约和美国就到了咱们家门口了，中国不应该欢迎。赵华胜教授认为中国在这一地区的利益是非常复杂的，有地缘政治方面的，也有非传统安全的和经济上的。如果美国失败，周边的安全局势会大大恶化。阿富汗内战，巴基斯坦核失控的危险会大大增加。恐怖势力受到鼓舞，我们在阿富汗的投资、合同都要失效。从这个角度看，我们不能认为美国失败对我们是有好处的。但是地缘政治的问题和其他问题如何平衡调节，确实是一个有难度的问题。关于瓦罕走廊，杨闯教授表示，向美国开放瓦罕走廊的看法极为危险，极为短视。瓦罕走廊是我们手中的一张牌，不能轻易出手。美对阿富汗、伊拉克战争未得到联合国授权。师出无名，没有政治号召力。美国在台湾问题上不放弃牵制中国，不肯废弃《与台湾关系法》。如果满足美国要求，是非常不明智的。开放瓦罕走廊，对中国安全不利，对新疆稳定不利，会得罪一大批阿拉伯国家和伊斯兰国家。中国外交基础是发展中国家，阿拉伯国家和伊斯兰国家是我们外交非常重要的借重力量。   

BARTLEBY, THE SCRIVENER.A STORY OF WALL-STREET.I am a rather elderly man. The nature of my avocations for the last thirty years has brought me into more than ordinary contact with what would seem an interesting and somewhat singular set of men, of whom as yet nothing that I know of has ever been written:—I mean the law-copyists or scriveners. I have known very many of them, professionally and privately, and if I pleased, could relate divers histories, at which good-natured gentlemen might smile, and sentimental souls might weep. But I waive the biographies of all other scriveners for a few passages in the life of Bartleby, who was a scrivener of the strangest I ever saw or heard of. While of other law-copyists I might write the complete life, of Bartleby nothing of that sort can be done. I believe that no materials exist for a full and satisfactory biography of this man. It is an irreparable loss to literature. Bartleby was one of those beings of whom nothing is ascertainable, except from the original sources, and in his case those are very small. What my own astonished eyes saw of Bartleby, that is all I know of him, except, indeed, one vague report which will appear in the sequel.Ere introducing the scrivener, as he first appeared to me, it is fit I make some mention of myself, my employees, my business, my chambers, and general surroundings; because some such description is indispensable to an adequate understanding of the chief character about to be presented.Imprimis: I am a man who, from his youth upwards, has been filled with a profound conviction that the easiest way of life is the best. Hence, though I belong to a profession proverbially energetic and nervous, even to turbulence, at times, yet nothing of that sort have I ever suffered to invade my peace. I am one of those unambitious lawyers who never addresses a jury, or in any way draws down public applause; but in the cool tranquility of a snug retreat, do a snug business among rich men's bonds and mortgages and title-deeds. All who know me, consider me an eminently safe man. The late John Jacob Astor, a personage little given to poetic enthusiasm, had no hesitation in pronouncing my first grand point to be prudence; my next, method. I do not speak it in vanity, but simply record the fact, that I was not unemployed in my profession by the late John Jacob Astor; a name which, I admit, I love to repeat, for it hath a rounded and orbicular sound to it, and rings like unto bullion. I will freely add, that I was not insensible to the late John Jacob Astor's good opinion.Some time prior to the period at which this little history begins, my avocations had been largely increased. The good old office, now extinct in the State of New York, of a Master in Chancery, had been conferred upon me. It was not a very arduous office, but very pleasantly remunerative. I seldom lose my temper; much more seldom indulge in dangerous indignation at wrongs and outrages; but I must be permitted to be rash here and declare, that I consider the sudden and violent abrogation of the office of Master in Chancery, by the new Constitution, as a—premature act; inasmuch as I had counted upon a life-lease of the profits, whereas I only received those of a few short years. But this is by the way.My chambers were up stairs at No.—Wall-street. At one end they looked upon the white wall of the interior of a spacious sky-light shaft, penetrating the building from top to bottom. This view might have been considered rather tame than otherwise, deficient in what landscape painters call "life." But if so, the view from the other end of my chambers offered, at least, a contrast, if nothing more. In that direction my windows commanded an unobstructed view of a lofty brick wall, black by age and everlasting shade; which wall required no spy-glass to bring out its lurking beauties, but for the benefit of all near-sighted spectators, was pushed up to within ten feet of my window panes. Owing to the great height of the surrounding buildings, and my chambers being on the second floor, the interval between this wall and mine not a little resembled a huge square cistern.At the period just preceding the advent of Bartleby, I had two persons as copyists in my employment, and a promising lad as an office-boy. First, Turkey; second, Nippers; third, Ginger Nut. These may seem names, the like of which are not usually found in the Directory. In truth they were nicknames, mutually conferred upon each other by my three clerks, and were deemed expressive of their respective persons or characters. Turkey was a short, pursy Englishman of about my own age, that is, somewhere not far from sixty. In the morning, one might say, his face was of a fine florid hue, but after twelve o'clock, meridian—his dinner hour—it blazed like a grate full of Christmas coals; and continued blazing—but, as it were, with a gradual wane—till 6 o'clock, P.M. or thereabouts, after which I saw no more of the proprietor of the face, which gaining its meridian with the sun, seemed to set with it, to rise, culminate, and decline the following day, with the like regularity and undiminished glory. There are many singular coincidences I have known in the course of my life, not the least among which was the fact, that exactly when Turkey displayed his fullest beams from his red and radiant countenance, just then, too, at that critical moment, began the daily period when I considered his business capacities as seriously disturbed for the remainder of the twenty-four hours. Not that he was absolutely idle, or averse to business then; far from it. The difficulty was, he was apt to be altogether too energetic. There was a strange, inflamed, flurried, flighty recklessness of activity about him. He would be incautious in dipping his pen into his inkstand. All his blots upon my documents, were dropped there after twelve o'clock, meridian. Indeed, not only would he be reckless and sadly given to making blots in the afternoon, but some days he went further, and was rather noisy. At such times, too, his face flamed with augmented blazonry, as if cannel coal had been heaped on anthracite. He made an unpleasant racket with his chair; spilled his sand-box; in mending his pens, impatiently split them all to pieces, and threw them on the floor in a sudden passion; stood up and leaned over his table, boxing his papers about in a most indecorous manner, very sad to behold in an elderly man like him. Nevertheless, as he was in many ways a most valuable person to me, and all the time before twelve o'clock, meridian, was the quickest, steadiest creature too, accomplishing a great deal of work in a style not easy to be matched—for these reasons, I was willing to overlook his eccentricities, though indeed, occasionally, I remonstrated with him. I did this very gently, however, because, though the civilest, nay, the blandest and most reverential of men in the morning, yet in the afternoon he was disposed, upon provocation, to be slightly rash with his tongue, in fact, insolent. Now, valuing his morning services as I did, and resolved not to lose them; yet, at the same time made uncomfortable by his inflamed ways after twelve o'clock; and being a man of peace, unwilling by my admonitions to call forth unseemly retorts from him; I took upon me, one Saturday noon (he was always worse on Saturdays), to hint to him, very kindly, that perhaps now that he was growing old, it might be well to abridge his labors; in short, he need not come to my chambers after twelve o'clock, but, dinner over, had best go home to his lodgings and rest himself till teatime. But no; he insisted upon his afternoon devotions. His countenance became intolerably fervid, as he oratorically assured me—gesticulating with a long ruler at the other end of the room—that if his services in the morning were useful, how indispensable, then, in the afternoon?"With submission, sir," said Turkey on this occasion, "I consider myself your right-hand man. In the morning I but marshal and deploy my columns; but in the afternoon I put myself at their head, and gallantly charge the foe, thus!"—and he made a violent thrust with the ruler."But the blots, Turkey," intimated I."True,—but, with submission, sir, behold these hairs! I am getting old. Surely, sir, a blot or two of a warm afternoon is not to be severely urged against gray hairs. Old age—even if it blot the page—is honorable. With submission, sir, we both are getting old."This appeal to my fellow-feeling was hardly to be resisted. At all events, I saw that go he would not. So I made up my mind to let him stay, resolving, nevertheless, to see to it, that during the afternoon he had to do with my less important papers.Nippers, the second on my list, was a whiskered, sallow, and, upon the whole, rather piratical-looking young man of about five and twenty. I always deemed him the victim of two evil powers—ambition and indigestion. The ambition was evinced by a certain impatience of the duties of a mere copyist, an unwarrantable usurpation of strictly professional affairs, such as the original drawing up of legal documents. The indigestion seemed betokened in an occasional nervous testiness and grinning irritability, causing the teeth to audibly grind together over mistakes committed in copying; unnecessary maledictions, hissed, rather than spoken, in the heat of business; and especially by a continual discontent with the height of the table where he worked. Though of a very ingenious mechanical turn, Nippers could never get this table to suit him. He put chips under it, blocks of various sorts, bits of pasteboard, and at last went so far as to attempt an exquisite adjustment by final pieces of folded blotting paper. But no invention would answer. If, for the sake of easing his back, he brought the table lid at a sharp angle well up towards his chin, and wrote there like a man using the steep roof of a Dutch house for his desk:—then he declared that it stopped the circulation in his arms. If now he lowered the table to his waistbands, and stooped over it in writing, then there was a sore aching in his back. In short, the truth of the matter was, Nippers knew not what he wanted. Or, if he wanted any thing, it was to be rid of a scrivener's table altogether. Among the manifestations of his diseased ambition was a fondness he had for receiving visits from certain ambiguous-looking fellows in seedy coats, whom he called his clients. Indeed I was aware that not only was he, at times, considerable of a ward-politician, but he occasionally did a little business at the Justices' courts, and was not unknown on the steps of the Tombs. I have good reason to believe, however, that one individual who called upon him at my chambers, and who, with a grand air, he insisted was his client, was no other than a dun, and the alleged title-deed, a bill. But with all his failings, and the annoyances he caused me, Nippers, like his compatriot Turkey, was a very useful man to me; wrote a neat, swift hand; and, when he chose, was not deficient in a gentlemanly sort of deportment. Added to this, he always dressed in a gentlemanly sort of way; and so, incidentally, reflected credit upon my chambers. Whereas with respect to Turkey, I had much ado to keep him from being a reproach to me. His clothes were apt to look oily and smell of eating-houses. He wore his pantaloons very loose and baggy in summer. His coats were execrable; his hat not to be handled. But while the hat was a thing of indifference to me, inasmuch as his natural civility and deference, as a dependent Englishman, always led him to doff it the moment he entered the room, yet his coat was another matter. Concerning his coats, I reasoned with him; but with no effect. The truth was, I suppose, that a man of so small an income, could not afford to sport such a lustrous face and a lustrous coat at one and the same time. As Nippers once observed, Turkey's money went chiefly for red ink. One winter day I presented Turkey with a highly-respectable looking coat of my own, a padded gray coat, of a most comfortable warmth, and which buttoned straight up from the knee to the neck. I thought Turkey would appreciate the favor, and abate his rashness and obstreperousness of afternoons. But no. I verily believe that buttoning himself up in so downy and blanket-like a coat had a pernicious effect upon him; upon the same principle that too much oats are bad for horses. In fact, precisely as a rash, restive horse is said to feel his oats, so Turkey felt his coat. It made him insolent. He was a man whom prosperity harmed.Though concerning the self-indulgent habits of Turkey I had my own private surmises, yet touching Nippers I was well persuaded that whatever might by his faults in other respects, he was, at least, a temperate young man. But indeed, nature herself seemed to have been his vintner, and at his birth charged him so thoroughly with an irritable, brandy-like disposition, that all subsequent potations were needless. When I consider how, amid the stillness of my chambers, Nippers would sometimes impatiently rise from his seat, and stooping over his table, spread his arms wide apart, seize the whole desk, and move it, and jerk it, with a grim, grinding motion on the floor, as if the table were a perverse voluntary agent, intent on thwarting and vexing him; I plainly perceive that for Nippers, brandy and water were altogether superfluous.It was fortunate for me that, owing to its peculiar cause—indigestion—the irritability and consequent nervousness of Nippers, were mainly observable in the morning, while in the afternoon he was comparatively mild. So that Turkey's paroxysms only coming on about twelve o'clock, I never had to do with their eccentricities at one time. Their fits relieved each other like guards. When Nippers' was on, Turkey's was off; and vice versa. This was a good natural arrangement under the circumstances.Ginger Nut, the third on my list, was a lad some twelve years old. His father was a carman, ambitious of seeing his son on the bench instead of a cart, before he died. So he sent him to my office as student at law, errand boy, and cleaner and sweeper, at the rate of one dollar a week. He had a little desk to himself, but he did not use it much. Upon inspection, the drawer exhibited a great array of the shells of various sorts of nuts. Indeed, to this quick-witted youth the whole noble science of the law was contained in a nut-shell. Not the least among the employments of Ginger Nut, as well as one which he discharged with the most alacrity, was his duty as cake and apple purveyor for Turkey and Nippers. Copying law papers being proverbially dry, husky sort of business, my two scriveners were fain to moisten their mouths very often with Spitzenbergs to be had at the numerous stalls nigh the Custom House and Post Office. Also, they sent Ginger Nut very frequently for that peculiar cake—small, flat, round, and very spicy—after which he had been named by them. Of a cold morning when business was but dull, Turkey would gobble up scores of these cakes, as if they were mere wafers—indeed they sell them at the rate of six or eight for a penny—the scrape of his pen blending with the crunching of the crisp particles in his mouth. Of all the fiery afternoon blunders and flurried rashnesses of Turkey, was his once moistening a ginger-cake between his lips, and clapping it on to a mortgage for a seal. I came within an ace of dismissing him then. But he mollified me by making an oriental bow, and saying—"With submission, sir, it was generous of me to find you in stationery on my own account."Now my original business—that of a conveyancer and title hunter, and drawer-up of recondite documents of all sorts—was considerably increased by receiving the master's office. There was now great work for scriveners. Not only must I push the clerks already with me, but I must have additional help. In answer to my advertisement, a motionless young man one morning, stood upon my office threshold, the door being open, for it was summer. I can see that figure now—pallidly neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn! It was Bartleby.After a few words touching his qualifications, I engaged him, glad to have among my corps of copyists a man of so singularly sedate an aspect, which I thought might operate beneficially upon the flighty temper of Turkey, and the fiery one of Nippers.I should have stated before that ground glass folding-doors divided my premises into two parts, one of which was occupied by my scriveners, the other by myself. According to my humor I threw open these doors, or closed them. I resolved to assign Bartleby a corner by the folding-doors, but on my side of them, so as to have this quiet man within easy call, in case any trifling thing was to be done. I placed his desk close up to a small side-window in that part of the room, a window which originally had afforded a lateral view of certain grimy back-yards and bricks, but which, owing to subsequent erections, commanded at present no view at all, though it gave some light. Within three feet of the panes was a wall, and the light came down from far above, between two lofty buildings, as from a very small opening in a dome. Still further to a satisfactory arrangement, I procured a high green folding screen, which might entirely isolate Bartleby from my sight, though not remove him from my voice. And thus, in a manner, privacy and society were conjoined.At first Bartleby did an extraordinary quantity of writing. As if long famishing for something to copy, he seemed to gorge himself on my documents. There was no pause for digestion. He ran a day and night line, copying by sun-light and by candle-light. I should have been quite delighted with his application, had he been cheerfully industrious. But he wrote on silently, palely, mechanically.It is, of course, an indispensable part of a scrivener's business to verify the accuracy of his copy, word by word. Where there are two or more scriveners in an office, they assist each other in this examination, one reading from the copy, the other holding the original. It is a very dull, wearisome, and lethargic affair. I can readily imagine that to some sanguine temperaments it would be altogether intolerable. For example, I cannot credit that the mettlesome poet Byron would have contentedly sat down with Bartleby to examine a law document of, say five hundred pages, closely written in a crimpy hand.Now and then, in the haste of business, it had been my habit to assist in comparing some brief document myself, calling Turkey or Nippers for this purpose. One object I had in placing Bartleby so handy to me behind the screen, was to avail myself of his services on such trivial occasions. It was on the third day, I think, of his being with me, and before any necessity had arisen for having his own writing examined, that, being much hurried to complete a small affair I had in hand, I abruptly called to Bartleby. In my haste and natural expectancy of instant compliance, I sat with my head bent over the original on my desk, and my right hand sideways, and somewhat nervously extended with the copy, so that immediately upon emerging from his retreat, Bartleby might snatch it and proceed to business without the least delay.In this very attitude did I sit when I called to him, rapidly stating what it was I wanted him to do—namely, to examine a small paper with me. Imagine my surprise, nay, my consternation, when without moving from his privacy, Bartleby in a singularly mild, firm voice, replied, "I would prefer not to."I sat awhile in perfect silence, rallying my stunned faculties. Immediately it occurred to me that my ears had deceived me, or Bartleby had entirely misunderstood my meaning. I repeated my request in the clearest tone I could assume. But in quite as clear a one came the previous reply, "I would prefer not to.""Prefer not to," echoed I, rising in high excitement, and crossing the room with a stride. "What do you mean? Are you moon-struck? I want you to help me compare this sheet here—take it," and I thrust it towards him."I would prefer not to," said he.I looked at him steadfastly. His face was leanly composed; his gray eye dimly calm. Not a wrinkle of agitation rippled him. Had there been the least uneasiness, anger, impatience or impertinence in his manner; in other words, had there been any thing ordinarily human about him, doubtless I should have violently dismissed him from the premises. But as it was, I should have as soon thought of turning my pale plaster-of-paris bust of Cicero out of doors. I stood gazing at him awhile, as he went on with his own writing, and then reseated myself at my desk. This is very strange, thought I. What had one best do? But my business hurried me. I concluded to forget the matter for the present, reserving it for my future leisure. So calling Nippers from the other room, the paper was speedily examined.A few days after this, Bartleby concluded four lengthy documents, being quadruplicates of a week's testimony taken before me in my High Court of Chancery. It became necessary to examine them. It was an important suit, and great accuracy was imperative. Having all things arranged I called Turkey, Nippers and Ginger Nut from the next room, meaning to place the four copies in the hands of my four clerks, while I should read from the original. Accordingly Turkey, Nippers and Ginger Nut had taken their seats in a row, each with his document in hand, when I called to Bartleby to join this interesting group."Bartleby! quick, I am waiting."I heard a slow scrape of his chair legs on the uncarpeted floor, and soon he appeared standing at the entrance of his hermitage."What is wanted?" said he mildly."The copies, the copies," said I hurriedly. "We are going to examine them. There"—and I held towards him the fourth quadruplicate."I would prefer not to," he said, and gently disappeared behind the screen.For a few moments I was turned into a pillar of salt, standing at the head of my seated column of clerks. Recovering myself, I advanced towards the screen, and demanded the reason for such extraordinary conduct."Why do you refuse?""I would prefer not to."With any other man I should have flown outright into a dreadful passion, scorned all further words, and thrust him ignominiously from my presence. But there was something about Bartleby that not only strangely disarmed me, but in a wonderful manner touched and disconcerted me. I began to reason with him."These are your own copies we are about to examine. It is labor saving to you, because one examination will answer for your four papers. It is common usage. Every copyist is bound to help examine his copy. Is it not so? Will you not speak? Answer!""I prefer not to," he replied in a flute-like tone. It seemed to me that while I had been addressing him, he carefully revolved every statement that I made; fully comprehended the meaning; could not gainsay the irresistible conclusions; but, at the same time, some paramount consideration prevailed with him to reply as he did."You are decided, then, not to comply with my request—a request made according to common usage and common sense?"He briefly gave me to understand that on that point my judgment was sound. Yes: his decision was irreversible.It is not seldom the case that when a man is browbeaten in some unprecedented and violently unreasonable way, he begins to stagger in his own plainest faith. He begins, as it were, vaguely to surmise that, wonderful as it may be, all the justice and all the reason is on the other side. Accordingly, if any disinterested persons are present, he turns to them for some reinforcement for his own faltering mind."Turkey," said I, "what do you think of this? Am I not right?""With submission, sir," said Turkey, with his blandest tone, "I think that you are.""Nippers," said I, "what do you think of it?""I think I should kick him out of the office."(The reader of nice perceptions will here perceive that, it being morning, Turkey's answer is couched in polite and tranquil terms, but Nippers replies in ill-tempered ones. Or, to repeat a previous sentence, Nippers' ugly mood was on duty and Turkey's off.)"Ginger Nut," said I, willing to enlist the smallest suffrage in my behalf, "what do you think of it?""I think, sir, he's a little luny," replied Ginger Nut with a grin."You hear what they say," said I, turning towards the screen, "come forth and do your duty."But he vouchsafed no reply. I pondered a moment in sore perplexity. But once more business hurried me. I determined again to postpone the consideration of this dilemma to my future leisure. With a little trouble we made out to examine the papers without Bartleby, though at every page or two, Turkey deferentially dropped his opinion that this proceeding was quite out of the common; while Nippers, twitching in his chair with a dyspeptic nervousness, ground out between his set teeth occasional hissing maledictions against the stubborn oaf behind the screen. And for his (Nippers') part, this was the first and the last time he would do another man's business without pay.Meanwhile Bartleby sat in his hermitage, oblivious to every thing but his own peculiar business there.Some days passed, the scrivener being employed upon another lengthy work. His late remarkable conduct led me to regard his ways narrowly. I observed that he never went to dinner; indeed that he never went any where. As yet I had never of my personal knowledge known him to be outside of my office. He was a perpetual sentry in the corner. At about eleven o'clock though, in the morning, I noticed that Ginger Nut would advance toward the opening in Bartleby's screen, as if silently beckoned thither by a gesture invisible to me where I sat. The boy would then leave the office jingling a few pence, and reappear with a handful of ginger-nuts which he delivered in the hermitage, receiving two of the cakes for his trouble.He lives, then, on ginger-nuts, thought I; never eats a dinner, properly speaking; he must be a vegetarian then; but no; he never eats even vegetables, he eats nothing but ginger-nuts. My mind then ran on in reveries concerning the probable effects upon the human constitution of living entirely on ginger-nuts. Ginger-nuts are so called because they contain ginger as one of their peculiar constituents, and the final flavoring one. Now what was ginger? A hot, spicy thing. Was Bartleby hot and spicy? Not at all. Ginger, then, had no effect upon Bartleby. Probably he preferred it should have none.Nothing so aggravates an earnest person as a passive resistance. If the individual so resisted be of a not inhumane temper, and the resisting one perfectly harmless in his passivity; then, in the better moods of the former, he will endeavor charitably to construe to his imagination what proves impossible to be solved by his judgment. Even so, for the most part, I regarded Bartleby and his ways. Poor fellow! thought I, he means no mischief; it is plain he intends no insolence; his aspect sufficiently evinces that his eccentricities are involuntary. He is useful to me. I can get along with him. If I turn him away, the chances are he will fall in with some less indulgent employer, and then he will be rudely treated, and perhaps driven forth miserably to starve. Yes. Here I can cheaply purchase a delicious self-approval. To befriend Bartleby; to humor him in his strange willfulness, will cost me little or nothing, while I lay up in my soul what will eventually prove a sweet morsel for my conscience. But this mood was not invariable with me. The passiveness of Bartleby sometimes irritated me. I felt strangely goaded on to encounter him in new opposition, to elicit some angry spark from him answerable to my own. But indeed I might as well have essayed to strike fire with my knuckles against a bit of Windsor soap. But one afternoon the evil impulse in me mastered me, and the following little scene ensued:"Bartleby," said I, "when those papers are all copied, I will compare them with you.""I would prefer not to.""How? Surely you do not mean to persist in that mulish vagary?"No answer.I threw open the folding-doors near by, and turning upon Turkey andNippers, exclaimed in an excited manner—"He says, a second time, he won't examine his papers. What do you think of it, Turkey?"It was afternoon, be it remembered. Turkey sat glowing like a brass boiler, his bald head steaming, his hands reeling among his blotted papers."Think of it?" roared Turkey; "I think I'll just step behind his screen, and black his eyes for him!"So saying, Turkey rose to his feet and threw his arms into a pugilistic position. He was hurrying away to make good his promise, when I detained him, alarmed at the effect of incautiously rousing Turkey's combativeness after dinner."Sit down, Turkey," said I, "and hear what Nippers has to say. What do you think of it, Nippers? Would I not be justified in immediately dismissing Bartleby?""Excuse me, that is for you to decide, sir. I think his conduct quite unusual, and indeed unjust, as regards Turkey and myself. But it may only be a passing whim.""Ah," exclaimed I, "you have strangely changed your mind then—you speak very gently of him now.""All beer," cried Turkey; "gentleness is effects of beer—Nippers and I dined together to-day. You see how gentle I am, sir. Shall I go and black his eyes?""You refer to Bartleby, I suppose. No, not to-day, Turkey," I replied; "pray, put up your fists."I closed the doors, and again advanced towards Bartleby. I felt additional incentives tempting me to my fate. I burned to be rebelled against again. I remembered that Bartleby never left the office."Bartleby," said I, "Ginger Nut is away; just step round to the Post Office, won't you? (it was but a three minute walk,) and see if there is any thing for me.""I would prefer not to.""You will not?""I prefer not."I staggered to my desk, and sat there in a deep study. My blind inveteracy returned. Was there any other thing in which I could procure myself to be ignominiously repulsed by this lean, penniless wight?—my hired clerk? What added thing is there, perfectly reasonable, that he will be sure to refuse to do?"Bartleby!"No answer."Bartleby," in a louder tone.No answer."Bartleby," I roared.Like a very ghost, agreeably to the laws of magical invocation, at the third summons, he appeared at the entrance of his hermitage."Go to the next room, and tell Nippers to come to me.""I prefer not to," he respectfully and slowly said, and mildly disappeared."Very good, Bartleby," said I, in a quiet sort of serenely severe self-possessed tone, intimating the unalterable purpose of some terrible retribution very close at hand. At the moment I half intended something of the kind. But upon the whole, as it was drawing towards my dinner-hour, I thought it best to put on my hat and walk home for the day, suffering much from perplexity and distress of mind.Shall I acknowledge it? The conclusion of this whole business was, that it soon became a fixed fact of my chambers, that a pale young scrivener, by the name of Bartleby, and a desk there; that he copied for me at the usual rate of four cents a folio (one hundred words); but he was permanently exempt from examining the work done by him, that duty being transferred to Turkey and Nippers, one of compliment doubtless to their superior acuteness; moreover, said Bartleby was never on any account to be dispatched on the most trivial errand of any sort; and that even if entreated to take upon him such a matter, it was generally understood that he would prefer not to—in other words, that he would refuse pointblank.As days passed on, I became considerably reconciled to Bartleby. His steadiness, his freedom from all dissipation, his incessant industry (except when he chose to throw himself into a standing revery behind his screen), his great, stillness, his unalterableness of demeanor under all circumstances, made him a valuable acquisition. One prime thing was this,—he was always there;—first in the morning, continually through the day, and the last at night. I had a singular confidence in his honesty. I felt my most precious papers perfectly safe in his hands. Sometimes to be sure I could not, for the very soul of me, avoid falling into sudden spasmodic passions with him. For it was exceeding difficult to bear in mind all the time those strange peculiarities, privileges, and unheard of exemptions, forming the tacit stipulations on Bartleby's part under which he remained in my office. Now and then, in the eagerness of dispatching pressing business, I would inadvertently summon Bartleby, in a short, rapid tone, to put his finger, say, on the incipient tie of a bit of red tape with which I was about compressing some papers. Of course, from behind the screen the usual answer, "I prefer not to," was sure to come; and then, how could a human creature with the common infirmities of our nature, refrain from bitterly exclaiming upon such perverseness—such unreasonableness. However, every added repulse of this sort which I received only tended to lessen the probability of my repeating the inadvertence.Here it must be said, that according to the custom of most legal gentlemen occupying chambers in densely-populated law buildings, there were several keys to my door. One was kept by a woman residing in the attic, which person weekly scrubbed and daily swept and dusted my apartments. Another was kept by Turkey for convenience sake. The third I sometimes carried in my own pocket. The fourth I knew not who had.Now, one Sunday morning I happened to go to Trinity Church, to hear a celebrated preacher, and finding myself rather early on the ground, I thought I would walk around to my chambers for a while. Luckily I had my key with me; but upon applying it to the lock, I found it resisted by something inserted from the inside. Quite surprised, I called out; when to my consternation a key was turned from within; and thrusting his lean visage at me, and holding the door ajar, the apparition of Bartleby appeared, in his shirt sleeves, and otherwise in a strangely tattered dishabille, saying quietly that he was sorry, but he was deeply engaged just then, and—preferred not admitting me at present. In a brief word or two, he moreover added, that perhaps I had better walk round the block two or three times, and by that time he would probably have concluded his affairs.Now, the utterly unsurmised appearance of Bartleby, tenanting my law-chambers of a Sunday morning, with his cadaverously gentlemanly nonchalance, yet withal firm and self-possessed, had such a strange effect upon me, that incontinently I slunk away from my own door, and did as desired. But not without sundry twinges of impotent rebellion against the mild effrontery of this unaccountable scrivener. Indeed, it was his wonderful mildness chiefly, which not only disarmed me, but unmanned me, as it were. For I consider that one, for the time, is a sort of unmanned when he tranquilly permits his hired clerk to dictate to him, and order him away from his own premises. Furthermore, I was full of uneasiness as to what Bartleby could possibly be doing in my office in his shirt sleeves, and in an otherwise dismantled condition of a Sunday morning. Was any thing amiss going on? Nay, that was out of the question. It was not to be thought of for a moment that Bartleby was an immoral person. But what could he be doing there?—copying? Nay again, whatever might be his eccentricities, Bartleby was an eminently decorous person. He would be the last man to sit down to his desk in any state approaching to nudity. Besides, it was Sunday; and there was something about Bartleby that forbade the supposition that he would by any secular occupation violate the proprieties of the day.Nevertheless, my mind was not pacified; and full of a restless curiosity, at last I returned to the door. Without hindrance I inserted my key, opened it, and entered. Bartleby was not to be seen. I looked round anxiously, peeped behind his screen; but it was very plain that he was gone. Upon more closely examining the place, I surmised that for an indefinite period Bartleby must have ate, dressed, and slept in my office, and that too without plate, mirror, or bed. The cushioned seat of a rickety old sofa in one corner bore the faint impress of a lean, reclining form. Rolled away under his desk, I found a blanket; under the empty grate, a blacking box and brush; on a chair, a tin basin, with soap and a ragged towel; in a newspaper a few crumbs of ginger-nuts and a morsel of cheese. Yes, thought I, it is evident enough that Bartleby has been making his home here, keeping bachelor's hall all by himself. Immediately then the thought came sweeping across me, What miserable friendlessness and loneliness are here revealed! His poverty is great; but his solitude, how horrible! Think of it. Of a Sunday, Wall-street is deserted as Petra; and every night of every day it is an emptiness. This building too, which of week-days hums with industry and life, at nightfall echoes with sheer vacancy, and all through Sunday is forlorn. And here Bartleby makes his home; sole spectator of a solitude which he has seen all populous—a sort of innocent and transformed Marius brooding among the ruins of Carthage!For the first time in my life a feeling of overpowering stinging melancholy seized me. Before, I had never experienced aught but a not-unpleasing sadness. The bond of a common humanity now drew me irresistibly to gloom. A fraternal melancholy! For both I and Bartleby were sons of Adam. I remembered the bright silks and sparkling faces I had seen that day, in gala trim, swan-like sailing down the Mississippi of Broadway; and I contrasted them with the pallid copyist, and thought to myself, Ah, happiness courts the light, so we deem the world is gay; but misery hides aloof, so we deem that misery there is none. These sad fancyings—chimeras, doubtless, of a sick and silly brain—led on to other and more special thoughts, concerning the eccentricities of Bartleby. Presentiments of strange discoveries hovered round me. The scrivener's pale form appeared to me laid out, among uncaring strangers, in its shivering winding sheet.Suddenly I was attracted by Bartleby's closed desk, the key in open sight left in the lock.I mean no mischief, seek the gratification of no heartless curiosity, thought I; besides, the desk is mine, and its contents too, so I will make bold to look within. Every thing was methodically arranged, the papers smoothly placed. The pigeon holes were deep, and removing the files of documents, I groped into their recesses. Presently I felt something there, and dragged it out. It was an old bandanna handkerchief, heavy and knotted. I opened it, and saw it was a savings' bank.I now recalled all the quiet mysteries which I had noted in the man. I remembered that he never spoke but to answer; that though at intervals he had considerable time to himself, yet I had never seen him reading—no, not even a newspaper; that for long periods he would stand looking out, at his pale window behind the screen, upon the dead brick wall; I was quite sure he never visited any refectory or eating house; while his pale face clearly indicated that he never drank beer like Turkey, or tea and coffee even, like other men; that he never went any where in particular that I could learn; never went out for a walk, unless indeed that was the case at present; that he had declined telling who he was, or whence he came, or whether he had any relatives in the world; that though so thin and pale, he never complained of ill health. And more than all, I remembered a certain unconscious air of pallid—how shall I call it?—of pallid haughtiness, say, or rather an austere reserve about him, which had positively awed me into my tame compliance with his eccentricities, when I had feared to ask him to do the slightest incidental thing for me, even though I might know, from his long-continued motionlessness, that behind his screen he must be standing in one of those dead-wall reveries of his.Revolving all these things, and coupling them with the recently discovered fact that he made my office his constant abiding place and home, and not forgetful of his morbid moodiness; revolving all these things, a prudential feeling began to steal over me. My first emotions had been those of pure melancholy and sincerest pity; but just in proportion as the forlornness of Bartleby grew and grew to my imagination, did that same melancholy merge into fear, that pity into repulsion. So true it is, and so terrible too, that up to a certain point the thought or sight of misery enlists our best affections; but, in certain special cases, beyond that point it does not. They err who would assert that invariably this is owing to the inherent selfishness of the human heart. It rather proceeds from a certain hopelessness of remedying excessive and organic ill. To a sensitive being, pity is not seldom pain. And when at last it is perceived that such pity cannot lead to effectual succor, common sense bids the soul rid of it. What I saw that morning persuaded me that the scrivener was the victim of innate and incurable disorder. I might give alms to his body; but his body did not pain him; it was his soul that suffered, and his soul I could not reach.I did not accomplish the purpose of going to Trinity Church that morning. Somehow, the things I had seen disqualified me for the time from church-going. I walked homeward, thinking what I would do with Bartleby. Finally, I resolved upon this;—I would put certain calm questions to him the next morning, touching his history, etc., and if he declined to answer them openly and unreservedly (and I supposed he would prefer not), then to give him a twenty dollar bill over and above whatever I might owe him, and tell him his services were no longer required; but that if in any other way I could assist him, I would be happy to do so, especially if he desired to return to his native place, wherever that might be, I would willingly help to defray the expenses. Moreover, if, after reaching home, he found himself at any time in want of aid, a letter from him would be sure of a reply.The next morning came."Bartleby," said I, gently calling to him behind his screen.No reply."Bartleby," said I, in a still gentler tone, "come here; I am not going to ask you to do any thing you would prefer not to do—I simply wish to speak to you."Upon this he noiselessly slid into view."Will you tell me, Bartleby, where you were born?""I would prefer not to.""Will you tell me any thing about yourself?""I would prefer not to.""But what reasonable objection can you have to speak to me? I feel friendly towards you."He did not look at me while I spoke, but kept his glance fixed upon my bust of Cicero, which as I then sat, was directly behind me, some six inches above my head."What is your answer, Bartleby?" said I, after waiting a considerable time for a reply, during which his countenance remained immovable, only there was the faintest conceivable tremor of the white attenuated mouth."At present I prefer to give no answer," he said, and retired into his hermitage.It was rather weak in me I confess, but his manner on this occasion nettled me. Not only did there seem to lurk in it a certain calm disdain, but his perverseness seemed ungrateful, considering the undeniable good usage and indulgence he had received from me.Again I sat ruminating what I should do. Mortified as I was at his behavior, and resolved as I had been to dismiss him when I entered my offices, nevertheless I strangely felt something superstitious knocking at my heart, and forbidding me to carry out my purpose, and denouncing me for a villain if I dared to breathe one bitter word against this forlornest of mankind. At last, familiarly drawing my chair behind his screen, I sat down and said: "Bartleby, never mind then about revealing your history; but let me entreat you, as a friend, to comply as far as may be with the usages of this office. Say now you will help to examine papers to-morrow or next day: in short, say now that in a day or two you will begin to be a little reasonable:—say so, Bartleby.""At present I would prefer not to be a little reasonable," was his mildly cadaverous reply.Just then the folding-doors opened, and Nippers approached. He seemed suffering from an unusually bad night's rest, induced by severer indigestion then common. He overheard those final words of Bartleby."Prefer not, eh?" gritted Nippers—"I'd prefer him, if I were you, sir," addressing me—"I'd prefer him; I'd give him preferences, the stubborn mule! What is it, sir, pray, that he prefers not to do now?"Bartleby moved not a limb."Mr. Nippers," said I, "I'd prefer that you would withdraw for the present."Somehow, of late I had got into the way of involuntarily using this word "prefer" upon all sorts of not exactly suitable occasions. And I trembled to think that my contact with the scrivener had already and seriously affected me in a mental way. And what further and deeper aberration might it not yet produce? This apprehension had not been without efficacy in determining me to summary means.As Nippers, looking very sour and sulky, was departing, Turkey blandly and deferentially approached."With submission, sir," said he, "yesterday I was thinking about Bartleby here, and I think that if he would but prefer to take a quart of good ale every day, it would do much towards mending him, and enabling him to assist in examining his papers.""So you have got the word too," said I, slightly excited."With submission, what word, sir," asked Turkey, respectfully crowding himself into the contracted space behind the screen, and by so doing, making me jostle the scrivener. "What word, sir?""I would prefer to be left alone here," said Bartleby, as if offended at being mobbed in his privacy."That's the word, Turkey," said I—"that's it.""Oh, prefer? oh yes—queer word. I never use it myself. But, sir, asI was saying, if he would but prefer—""Turkey," interrupted I, "you will please withdraw.""Oh certainly, sir, if you prefer that I should."As he opened the folding-door to retire, Nippers at his desk caught a glimpse of me, and asked whether I would prefer to have a certain paper copied on blue paper or white. He did not in the least roguishly accent the word prefer. It was plain that it involuntarily rolled form his tongue. I thought to myself, surely I must get rid of a demented man, who already has in some degree turned the tongues, if not the heads of myself and clerks. But I thought it prudent not to break the dismission at once.The next day I noticed that Bartleby did nothing but stand at his window in his dead-wall revery. Upon asking him why he did not write, he said that he had decided upon doing no more writing."Why, how now? what next?" exclaimed I, "do no more writing?""No more.""And what is the reason?""Do you not see the reason for yourself," he indifferently replied.I looked steadfastly at him, and perceived that his eyes looked dull and glazed. Instantly it occurred to me, that his unexampled diligence in copying by his dim window for the first few weeks of his stay with me might have temporarily impaired his vision.I was touched. I said something in condolence with him. I hinted that of course he did wisely in abstaining from writing for a while; and urged him to embrace that opportunity of taking wholesome exercise in the open air. This, however, he did not do. A few days after this, my other clerks being absent, and being in a great hurry to dispatch certain letters by the mail, I thought that, having nothing else earthly to do, Bartleby would surely be less inflexible than usual, and carry these letters to the post-office. But he blankly declined. So, much to my inconvenience, I went myself.Still added days went by. Whether Bartleby's eyes improved or not, I could not say. To all appearance, I thought they did. But when I asked him if they did, he vouchsafed no answer. At all events, he would do no copying. At last, in reply to my urgings, he informed me that he had permanently given up copying."What!" exclaimed I; "suppose your eyes should get entirely well—better than ever before—would you not copy then?""I have given up copying," he answered, and slid aside.He remained as ever, a fixture in my chamber. Nay—if that were possible—he became still more of a fixture than before. What was to be done? He would do nothing in the office: why should he stay there? In plain fact, he had now become a millstone to me, not only useless as a necklace, but afflictive to bear. Yet I was sorry for him. I speak less than truth when I say that, on his own account, he occasioned me uneasiness. If he would but have named a single relative or friend, I would instantly have written, and urged their taking the poor fellow away to some convenient retreat. But he seemed alone, absolutely alone in the universe. A bit of wreck in the mid Atlantic. At length, necessities connected with my business tyrannized over all other considerations. Decently as I could, I told Bartleby that in six days' time he must unconditionally leave the office. I warned him to take measures, in the interval, for procuring some other abode. I offered to assist him in this endeavor, if he himself would but take the first step towards a removal. "And when you finally quit me, Bartleby," added I, "I shall see that you go not away entirely unprovided. Six days from this hour, remember."At the expiration of that period, I peeped behind the screen, and lo!Bartleby was there.I buttoned up my coat, balanced myself; advanced slowly towards him, touched his shoulder, and said, "The time has come; you must quit this place; I am sorry for you; here is money; but you must go.""I would prefer not," he replied, with his back still towards me."You must."He remained silent.Now I had an unbounded confidence in this man's common honesty. He had frequently restored to me sixpences and shillings carelessly dropped upon the floor, for I am apt to be very reckless in such shirt-button affairs. The proceeding then which followed will not be deemed extraordinary."Bartleby," said I, "I owe you twelve dollars on account; here are thirty-two; the odd twenty are yours.—Will you take it?" and I handed the bills towards him.But he made no motion."I will leave them here then," putting them under a weight on the table. Then taking my hat and cane and going to the door I tranquilly turned and added—"After you have removed your things from these offices, Bartleby, you will of course lock the door—since every one is now gone for the day but you—and if you please, slip your key underneath the mat, so that I may have it in the morning. I shall not see you again; so good-bye to you. If hereafter in your new place of abode I can be of any service to you, do not fail to advise me by letter. Good-bye, Bartleby, and fare you well."But he answered not a word; like the last column of some ruined temple, he remained standing mute and solitary in the middle of the otherwise deserted room.As I walked home in a pensive mood, my vanity got the better of my pity. I could not but highly plume myself on my masterly management in getting rid of Bartleby. Masterly I call it, and such it must appear to any dispassionate thinker. The beauty of my procedure seemed to consist in its perfect quietness. There was no vulgar bullying, no bravado of any sort, no choleric hectoring, and striding to and fro across the apartment, jerking out vehement commands for Bartleby to bundle himself off with his beggarly traps. Nothing of the kind. Without loudly bidding Bartleby depart—as an inferior genius might have done—I assumed the ground that depart he must; and upon that assumption built all I had to say. The more I thought over my procedure, the more I was charmed with it. Nevertheless, next morning, upon awakening, I had my doubts,—I had somehow slept off the fumes of vanity. One of the coolest and wisest hours a man has, is just after he awakes in the morning. My procedure seemed as sagacious as ever.—but only in theory. How it would prove in practice—there was the rub. It was truly a beautiful thought to have assumed Bartleby's departure; but, after all, that assumption was simply my own, and none of Bartleby's. The great point was, not whether I had assumed that he would quit me, but whether he would prefer so to do. He was more a man of preferences than assumptions.After breakfast, I walked down town, arguing the probabilities pro and con. One moment I thought it would prove a miserable failure, and Bartleby would be found all alive at my office as usual; the next moment it seemed certain that I should see his chair empty. And so I kept veering about. At the corner of Broadway and Canal-street, I saw quite an excited group of people standing in earnest conversation."I'll take odds he doesn't," said a voice as I passed."Doesn't go?—done!" said I, "put up your money."I was instinctively putting my hand in my pocket to produce my own, when I remembered that this was an election day. The words I had overheard bore no reference to Bartleby, but to the success or non-success of some candidate for the mayoralty. In my intent frame of mind, I had, as it were, imagined that all Broadway shared in my excitement, and were debating the same question with me. I passed on, very thankful that the uproar of the street screened my momentary absent-mindedness.As I had intended, I was earlier than usual at my office door. I stood listening for a moment. All was still. He must be gone. I tried the knob. The door was locked. Yes, my procedure had worked to a charm; he indeed must be vanished. Yet a certain melancholy mixed with this: I was almost sorry for my brilliant success. I was fumbling under the door mat for the key, which Bartleby was to have left there for me, when accidentally my knee knocked against a panel, producing a summoning sound, and in response a voice came to me from within—"Not yet; I am occupied."It was Bartleby.I was thunderstruck. For an instant I stood like the man who, pipe in mouth, was killed one cloudless afternoon long ago in Virginia, by a summer lightning; at his own warm open window he was killed, and remained leaning out there upon the dreamy afternoon, till some one touched him, when he fell."Not gone!" I murmured at last. But again obeying that wondrous ascendancy which the inscrutable scrivener had over me, and from which ascendancy, for all my chafing, I could not completely escape, I slowly went down stairs and out into the street, and while walking round the block, considered what I should next do in this unheard-of perplexity. Turn the man out by an actual thrusting I could not; to drive him away by calling him hard names would not do; calling in the police was an unpleasant idea; and yet, permit him to enjoy his cadaverous triumph over me,—this too I could not think of. What was to be done? or, if nothing could be done, was there any thing further that I could assume in the matter? Yes, as before I had prospectively assumed that Bartleby would depart, so now I might retrospectively assume that departed he was. In the legitimate carrying out of this assumption, I might enter my office in a great hurry, and pretending not to see Bartleby at all, walk straight against him as if he were air. Such a proceeding would in a singular degree have the appearance of a home-thrust. It was hardly possible that Bartleby could withstand such an application of the doctrine of assumptions. But upon second thoughts the success of the plan seemed rather dubious. I resolved to argue the matter over with him again."Bartleby," said I, entering the office, with a quietly severe expression, "I am seriously displeased. I am pained, Bartleby. I had thought better of you. I had imagined you of such a gentlemanly organization, that in any delicate dilemma a slight hint would have suffice—in short, an assumption. But it appears I am deceived. Why," I added, unaffectedly starting, "you have not even touched that money yet," pointing to it, just where I had left it the evening previous.He answered nothing."Will you, or will you not, quit me?" I now demanded in a sudden passion, advancing close to him."I would prefer not to quit you," he replied, gently emphasizing the not."What earthly right have you to stay here? Do you pay any rent? Do you pay my taxes? Or is this property yours?"He answered nothing."Are you ready to go on and write now? Are your eyes recovered? Could you copy a small paper for me this morning? or help examine a few lines? or step round to the post-office? In a word, will you do any thing at all, to give a coloring to your refusal to depart the premises?"He silently retired into his hermitage.I was now in such a state of nervous resentment that I thought it but prudent to check myself at present from further demonstrations. Bartleby and I were alone. I remembered the tragedy of the unfortunate Adams and the still more unfortunate Colt in the solitary office of the latter; and how poor Colt, being dreadfully incensed by Adams, and imprudently permitting himself to get wildly excited, was at unawares hurried into his fatal act—an act which certainly no man could possibly deplore more than the actor himself. Often it had occurred to me in my ponderings upon the subject, that had that altercation taken place in the public street, or at a private residence, it would not have terminated as it did. It was the circumstance of being alone in a solitary office, up stairs, of a building entirely unhallowed by humanizing domestic associations—an uncarpeted office, doubtless, of a dusty, haggard sort of appearance;—this it must have been, which greatly helped to enhance the irritable desperation of the hapless Colt.But when this old Adam of resentment rose in me and tempted me concerning Bartleby, I grappled him and threw him. How? Why, simply by recalling the divine injunction: "A new commandment give I unto you, that ye love one another." Yes, this it was that saved me. Aside from higher considerations, charity often operates as a vastly wise and prudent principle—a great safeguard to its possessor. Men have committed murder for jealousy's sake, and anger's sake, and hatred's sake, and selfishness' sake, and spiritual pride's sake; but no man that ever I heard of, ever committed a diabolical murder for sweet charity's sake. Mere self-interest, then, if no better motive can be enlisted, should, especially with high-tempered men, prompt all beings to charity and philanthropy. At any rate, upon the occasion in question, I strove to drown my exasperated feelings towards the scrivener by benevolently construing his conduct. Poor fellow, poor fellow! thought I, he don't mean any thing; and besides, he has seen hard times, and ought to be indulged.I endeavored also immediately to occupy myself, and at the same time to comfort my despondency. I tried to fancy that in the course of the morning, at such time as might prove agreeable to him. Bartleby, of his own free accord, would emerge from his hermitage, and take up some decided line of march in the direction of the door. But no. Half-past twelve o'clock came; Turkey began to glow in the face, overturn his inkstand, and become generally obstreperous; Nippers abated down into quietude and courtesy; Ginger Nut munched his noon apple; and Bartleby remained standing at his window in one of his profoundest dead-wall reveries. Will it be credited? Ought I to acknowledge it? That afternoon I left the office without saying one further word to him.Some days now passed, during which, at leisure intervals I looked a little into "Edwards on the Will," and "Priestly on Necessity." Under the circumstances, those books induced a salutary feeling. Gradually I slid into the persuasion that these troubles of mine touching the scrivener, had been all predestinated from eternity, and Bartleby was billeted upon me for some mysterious purpose of an all-wise Providence, which it was not for a mere mortal like me to fathom. Yes, Bartleby, stay there behind your screen, thought I; I shall persecute you no more; you are harmless and noiseless as any of these old chairs; in short, I never feel so private as when I know you are here. At last I see it, I feel it; I penetrate to the predestinated purpose of my life. I am content. Others may have loftier parts to enact; but my mission in this world, Bartleby, is to furnish you with office-room for such period as you may see fit to remain.I believe that this wise and blessed frame of mind would have continued with me, had it not been for the unsolicited and uncharitable remarks obtruded upon me by my professional friends who visited the rooms. But thus it often is, that the constant friction of illiberal minds wears out at last the best resolves of the more generous. Though to be sure, when I reflected upon it, it was not strange that people entering my office should be struck by the peculiar aspect of the unaccountable Bartleby, and so be tempted to throw out some sinister observations concerning him. Sometimes an attorney having business with me, and calling at my office and finding no one but the scrivener there, would undertake to obtain some sort of precise information from him touching my whereabouts; but without heeding his idle talk, Bartleby would remain standing immovable in the middle of the room. So after contemplating him in that position for a time, the attorney would depart, no wiser than he came.Also, when a Reference was going on, and the room full of lawyers and witnesses and business was driving fast; some deeply occupied legal gentleman present, seeing Bartleby wholly unemployed, would request him to run round to his (the legal gentleman's) office and fetch some papers for him. Thereupon, Bartleby would tranquilly decline, and yet remain idle as before. Then the lawyer would give a great stare, and turn to me. And what could I say? At last I was made aware that all through the circle of my professional acquaintance, a whisper of wonder was running round, having reference to the strange creature I kept at my office. This worried me very much. And as the idea came upon me of his possibly turning out a long-lived man, and keep occupying my chambers, and denying my authority; and perplexing my visitors; and scandalizing my professional reputation; and casting a general gloom over the premises; keeping soul and body together to the last upon his savings (for doubtless he spent but half a dime a day), and in the end perhaps outlive me, and claim possession of my office by right of his perpetual occupancy: as all these dark anticipations crowded upon me more and more, and my friends continually intruded their relentless remarks upon the apparition in my room; a great change was wrought in me. I resolved to gather all my faculties together, and for ever rid me of this intolerable incubus.Ere revolving any complicated project, however, adapted to this end, I first simply suggested to Bartleby the propriety of his permanent departure. In a calm and serious tone, I commended the idea to his careful and mature consideration. But having taken three days to meditate upon it, he apprised me that his original determination remained the same in short, that he still preferred to abide with me.What shall I do? I now said to myself, buttoning up my coat to the last button. What shall I do? what ought I to do? what does conscience say I should do with this man, or rather ghost. Rid myself of him, I must; go, he shall. But how? You will not thrust him, the poor, pale, passive mortal,—you will not thrust such a helpless creature out of your door? you will not dishonor yourself by such cruelty? No, I will not, I cannot do that. Rather would I let him live and die here, and then mason up his remains in the wall. What then will you do? For all your coaxing, he will not budge. Bribes he leaves under your own paperweight on your table; in short, it is quite plain that he prefers to cling to you.Then something severe, something unusual must be done. What! surely you will not have him collared by a constable, and commit his innocent pallor to the common jail? And upon what ground could you procure such a thing to be done?—a vagrant, is he? What! he a vagrant, a wanderer, who refuses to budge? It is because he will not be a vagrant, then, that you seek to count him as a vagrant. That is too absurd. No visible means of support: there I have him. Wrong again: for indubitably he does support himself, and that is the only unanswerable proof that any man can show of his possessing the means so to do. No more then. Since he will not quit me, I must quit him. I will change my offices; I will move elsewhere; and give him fair notice, that if I find him on my new premises I will then proceed against him as a common trespasser.Acting accordingly, next day I thus addressed him: "I find these chambers too far from the City Hall; the air is unwholesome. In a word, I propose to remove my offices next week, and shall no longer require your services. I tell you this now, in order that you may seek another place."He made no reply, and nothing more was said.On the appointed day I engaged carts and men, proceeded to my chambers, and having but little furniture, every thing was removed in a few hours. Throughout, the scrivener remained standing behind the screen, which I directed to be removed the last thing. It was withdrawn; and being folded up like a huge folio, left him the motionless occupant of a naked room. I stood in the entry watching him a moment, while something from within me upbraided me.I re-entered, with my hand in my pocket—and—and my heart in my mouth."Good-bye, Bartleby; I am going—good-bye, and God some way bless you; and take that," slipping something in his hand. But it dropped upon the floor, and then,—strange to say—I tore myself from him whom I had so longed to be rid of.Established in my new quarters, for a day or two I kept the door locked, and started at every footfall in the passages. When I returned to my rooms after any little absence, I would pause at the threshold for an instant, and attentively listen, ere applying my key. But these fears were needless. Bartleby never came nigh me.I thought all was going well, when a perturbed looking stranger visited me, inquiring whether I was the person who had recently occupied rooms at No.—Wall-street.Full of forebodings, I replied that I was."Then sir," said the stranger, who proved a lawyer, "you are responsible for the man you left there. He refuses to do any copying; he refuses to do any thing; he says he prefers not to; and he refuses to quit the premises.""I am very sorry, sir," said I, with assumed tranquility, but an inward tremor, "but, really, the man you allude to is nothing to me—he is no relation or apprentice of mine, that you should hold me responsible for him.""In mercy's name, who is he?""I certainly cannot inform you. I know nothing about him. Formerly I employed him as a copyist; but he has done nothing for me now for some time past.""I shall settle him then,—good morning, sir."Several days passed, and I heard nothing more; and though I often felt a charitable prompting to call at the place and see poor Bartleby, yet a certain squeamishness of I know not what withheld me.All is over with him, by this time, thought I at last, when through another week no further intelligence reached me. But coming to my room the day after, I found several persons waiting at my door in a high state of nervous excitement."That's the man—here he comes," cried the foremost one, whom I recognized as the lawyer who had previously called upon me alone."You must take him away, sir, at once," cried a portly person among them, advancing upon me, and whom I knew to be the landlord of No.—Wall-street. "These gentlemen, my tenants, cannot stand it any longer; Mr. B—" pointing to the lawyer, "has turned him out of his room, and he now persists in haunting the building generally, sitting upon the banisters of the stairs by day, and sleeping in the entry by night. Every body is concerned; clients are leaving the offices; some fears are entertained of a mob; something you must do, and that without delay."Aghast at this torrent, I fell back before it, and would fain have locked myself in my new quarters. In vain I persisted that Bartleby was nothing to me—no more than to any one else. In vain:—I was the last person known to have any thing to do with him, and they held me to the terrible account. Fearful then of being exposed in the papers (as one person present obscurely threatened) I considered the matter, and at length said, that if the lawyer would give me a confidential interview with the scrivener, in his (the lawyer's) own room, I would that afternoon strive my best to rid them of the nuisance they complained of.Going up stairs to my old haunt, there was Bartleby silently sitting upon the banister at the landing."What are you doing here, Bartleby?" said I."Sitting upon the banister," he mildly replied.I motioned him into the lawyer's room, who then left us."Bartleby," said I, "are you aware that you are the cause of great tribulation to me, by persisting in occupying the entry after being dismissed from the office?"No answer."Now one of two things must take place. Either you must do something, or something must be done to you. Now what sort of business would you like to engage in? Would you like to re-engage in copying for some one?""No; I would prefer not to make any change.""Would you like a clerkship in a dry-goods store?""There is too much confinement about that. No, I would not like a clerkship; but I am not particular.""Too much confinement," I cried, "why you keep yourself confined all the time!""I would prefer not to take a clerkship," he rejoined, as if to settle that little item at once."How would a bar-tender's business suit you? There is no trying of the eyesight in that.""I would not like it at all; though, as I said before, I am not particular."His unwonted wordiness inspirited me. I returned to the charge."Well then, would you like to travel through the country collecting bills for the merchants? That would improve your health.""No, I would prefer to be doing something else.""How then would going as a companion to Europe, to entertain some young gentleman with your conversation,—how would that suit you?""Not at all. It does not strike me that there is any thing definite about that. I like to be stationary. But I am not particular.""Stationary you shall be then," I cried, now losing all patience, and for the first time in all my exasperating connection with him fairly flying into a passion. "If you do not go away from these premises before night, I shall feel bound—indeed I am bound—to—to—to quit the premises myself!" I rather absurdly concluded, knowing not with what possible threat to try to frighten his immobility into compliance. Despairing of all further efforts, I was precipitately leaving him, when a final thought occurred to me—one which had not been wholly unindulged before."Bartleby," said I, in the kindest tone I could assume under such exciting circumstances, "will you go home with me now—not to my office, but my dwelling—and remain there till we can conclude upon some convenient arrangement for you at our leisure? Come, let us start now, right away.""No: at present I would prefer not to make any change at all."I answered nothing; but effectually dodging every one by the suddenness and rapidity of my flight, rushed from the building, ran up Wall-street towards Broadway, and jumping into the first omnibus was soon removed from pursuit. As soon as tranquility returned I distinctly perceived that I had now done all that I possibly could, both in respect to the demands of the landlord and his tenants, and with regard to my own desire and sense of duty, to benefit Bartleby, and shield him from rude persecution. I now strove to be entirely care-free and quiescent; and my conscience justified me in the attempt; though indeed it was not so successful as I could have wished. So fearful was I of being again hunted out by the incensed landlord and his exasperated tenants, that, surrendering my business to Nippers, for a few days I drove about the upper part of the town and through the suburbs, in my rockaway; crossed over to Jersey City and Hoboken, and paid fugitive visits to Manhattanville and Astoria. In fact I almost lived in my rockaway for the time.When again I entered my office, lo, a note from the landlord lay upon the desk. I opened it with trembling hands. It informed me that the writer had sent to the police, and had Bartleby removed to the Tombs as a vagrant. Moreover, since I knew more about him than any one else, he wished me to appear at that place, and make a suitable statement of the facts. These tidings had a conflicting effect upon me. At first I was indignant; but at last almost approved. The landlord's energetic, summary disposition had led him to adopt a procedure which I do not think I would have decided upon myself; and yet as a last resort, under such peculiar circumstances, it seemed the only plan.As I afterwards learned, the poor scrivener, when told that he must be conducted to the Tombs, offered not the slightest obstacle, but in his pale unmoving way, silently acquiesced.Some of the compassionate and curious bystanders joined the party; and headed by one of the constables arm in arm with Bartleby, the silent procession filed its way through all the noise, and heat, and joy of the roaring thoroughfares at noon.The same day I received the note I went to the Tombs, or to speak more properly, the Halls of Justice. Seeking the right officer, I stated the purpose of my call, and was informed that the individual I described was indeed within. I then assured the functionary that Bartleby was a perfectly honest man, and greatly to be compassionated, however unaccountably eccentric. I narrated all I knew, and closed by suggesting the idea of letting him remain in as indulgent confinement as possible till something less harsh might be done—though indeed I hardly knew what. At all events, if nothing else could be decided upon, the alms-house must receive him. I then begged to have an interview.Being under no disgraceful charge, and quite serene and harmless in all his ways, they had permitted him freely to wander about the prison, and especially in the inclosed grass-platted yard thereof. And so I found him there, standing all alone in the quietest of the yards, his face towards a high wall, while all around, from the narrow slits of the jail windows, I thought I saw peering out upon him the eyes of murderers and thieves."Bartleby!""I know you," he said, without looking round,—"and I want nothing to say to you.""It was not I that brought you here, Bartleby," said I, keenly pained at his implied suspicion. "And to you, this should not be so vile a place. Nothing reproachful attaches to you by being here. And see, it is not so sad a place as one might think. Look, there is the sky, and here is the grass.""I know where I am," he replied, but would say nothing more, and so I left him.As I entered the corridor again, a broad meat-like man, in an apron, accosted me, and jerking his thumb over his shoulder said—"Is that your friend?""Yes.""Does he want to starve? If he does, let him live on the prison fare, that's all.""Who are you?" asked I, not knowing what to make of such an unofficially speaking person in such a place."I am the grub-man. Such gentlemen as have friends here, hire me to provide them with something good to eat.""Is this so?" said I, turning to the turnkey.He said it was."Well then," said I, slipping some silver into the grub-man's hands (for so they called him). "I want you to give particular attention to my friend there; let him have the best dinner you can get. And you must be as polite to him as possible.""Introduce me, will you?" said the grub-man, looking at me with an expression which seem to say he was all impatience for an opportunity to give a specimen of his breeding.Thinking it would prove of benefit to the scrivener, I acquiesced; and asking the grub-man his name, went up with him to Bartleby."Bartleby, this is Mr. Cutlets; you will find him very useful to you.""Your sarvant, sir, your sarvant," said the grub-man, making a low salutation behind his apron. "Hope you find it pleasant here, sir;—spacious grounds—cool apartments, sir—hope you'll stay with us some time—try to make it agreeable. May Mrs. Cutlets and I have the pleasure of your company to dinner, sir, in Mrs. Cutlets' private room?""I prefer not to dine to-day," said Bartleby, turning away. "It would disagree with me; I am unused to dinners." So saying he slowly moved to the other side of the inclosure, and took up a position fronting the dead-wall."How's this?" said the grub-man, addressing me with a stare of astonishment. "He's odd, aint he?""I think he is a little deranged," said I, sadly."Deranged? deranged is it? Well now, upon my word, I thought that friend of yourn was a gentleman forger; they are always pale and genteel-like, them forgers. I can't pity'em—can't help it, sir. Did you know Monroe Edwards?" he added touchingly, and paused. Then, laying his hand pityingly on my shoulder, sighed, "he died of consumption at Sing-Sing. So you weren't acquainted with Monroe?""No, I was never socially acquainted with any forgers. But I cannot stop longer. Look to my friend yonder. You will not lose by it. I will see you again."Some few days after this, I again obtained admission to the Tombs, and went through the corridors in quest of Bartleby; but without finding him."I saw him coming from his cell not long ago," said a turnkey, "may be he's gone to loiter in the yards."So I went in that direction."Are you looking for the silent man?" said another turnkey passing me. "Yonder he lies—sleeping in the yard there. 'Tis not twenty minutes since I saw him lie down."The yard was entirely quiet. It was not accessible to the common prisoners. The surrounding walls, of amazing thickness, kept off all sounds behind them. The Egyptian character of the masonry weighed upon me with its gloom. But a soft imprisoned turf grew under foot. The heart of the eternal pyramids, it seemed, wherein, by some strange magic, through the clefts, grass-seed, dropped by birds, had sprung.Strangely huddled at the base of the wall, his knees drawn up, and lying on his side, his head touching the cold stones, I saw the wasted Bartleby. But nothing stirred. I paused; then went close up to him; stooped over, and saw that his dim eyes were open; otherwise he seemed profoundly sleeping. Something prompted me to touch him. I felt his hand, when a tingling shiver ran up my arm and down my spine to my feet.The round face of the grub-man peered upon me now. "His dinner is ready. Won't he dine to-day, either? Or does he live without dining?""Lives without dining," said I, and closed his eyes."Eh!—He's asleep, aint he?""With kings and counselors," murmured I.* * * * * * * *There would seem little need for proceeding further in this history. Imagination will readily supply the meager recital of poor Bartleby's interment. But ere parting with the reader, let me say, that if this little narrative has sufficiently interested him, to awaken curiosity as to who Bartleby was, and what manner of life he led prior to the present narrator's making his acquaintance, I can only reply, that in such curiosity I fully share, but am wholly unable to gratify it. Yet here I hardly know whether I should divulge one little item of rumor, which came to my ear a few months after the scrivener's decease. Upon what basis it rested, I could never ascertain; and hence, how true it is I cannot now tell. But inasmuch as this vague report has not been without certain strange suggestive interest to me, however sad, it may prove the same with some others; and so I will briefly mention it. The report was this: that Bartleby had been a subordinate clerk in the Dead Letter Office at Washington, from which he had been suddenly removed by a change in the administration. When I think over this rumor, I cannot adequately express the emotions which seize me. Dead letters! does it not sound like dead men? Conceive a man by nature and misfortune prone to a pallid hopelessness, can any business seem more fitted to heighten it than that of continually handling these dead letters, and assorting them for the flames? For by the cart-load they are annually burned. Sometimes from out the folded paper the pale clerk takes a ring:—the finger it was meant for, perhaps, moulders in the grave; a bank-note sent in swiftest charity:—he whom it would relieve, nor eats nor hungers any more; pardon for those who died despairing; hope for those who died unhoping; good tidings for those who died stifled by unrelieved calamities. On errands of life, these letters speed to death.Ah Bartleby! Ah humanity! End of Project Gutenberg's Bartleby, The Scrivener, by Herman Melville*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARTLEBY, THE SCRIVENER ***This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net 

我辈狂歌凋以悴，荒唐爱国空虚泪。 当时乌发斗潮流，此际银鬖伤鬼魅。 ──张大春《钓鱼台行 七古》 四月九日、十日两天，老保钓人在世新大学举办了一场保卫钓鱼台四十周年大会，许多长年旅居国外的学者回台赴会，筹备委员会广发英雄帖，邀请社运人士和诸多相关议题研究者、运动者与会，希望不同世代之间的连结能带出对话的空间。1969年，二战后交由美国「讬管」的冲绳群岛在美日决议回归日本统治后，1970年起，钓鱼台问题在各地华人学生之间掀起大量讨论；隔年一月起，保钓游行从留美台湾学生开始野火燎原，三月，五百位旅美学人上书蒋介石。四月十日的华盛顿保钓大游行有近两千五百名学生参与，为保钓示威的最高潮，也因这一天美国国务院回应之傲慢、中华民国驻美大使馆官邸人员彻底不对话，使得学生们开始质疑过去认知美国作为「国际正义捍卫者」的固有信念是否谬误，对中华民国政府也不再信任。这个觉醒可说是保钓运动中最重要的环节，也是保钓留给今日台湾社会的具体贡献。 筹备委员会召集人林孝信回想那一天，认为是保钓运动重要的里程碑，也是保钓里左统、右统及「第三条路」的分裂点。「四月十日是关键，但路线之间的歧异到九月三日才亮出来。国民党的表现太差，大家开始找不同的出路，忠心于国民党的走向右统，不同想法的有些走向左统，我们（第三条路）觉得关心要在台湾，社会主义要与民众站在一起，当然先帮助台湾的受迫害者。」林孝信说，「五月四日，保钓团体办了五四纪念会，大家想对含混的历史通盘了解，因为教科书里说蒋总统以德报怨、日本对中国心存感激，那为什么现在日本又来欺负我们？社会教育我们美国是世界灯塔、中国的最好盟邦，那为什么美国偏袒日本？」 从这样的历史一路梳理下来，这些当年的知识菁英走进图书馆翻遍所有相关资料，连结了五四的思想启蒙、连结了抗日传统、连结了五零年代台湾共产党地下组织，这次相当规模的青年自觉，扮演了学运中承先启后的历史角色。1972年美国将琉球群岛与钓鱼台列屿正式「复归」日本，周恩来与日本首相田中角荣亦决议搁置钓鱼台争议、中日关系正常化，保钓之声于是随着这样的挫败沉寂了。至90年代，多次台、中船只及飞机在钓鱼台周围活动遭日本海上保安厅阻挠引发的争议又让钓鱼台问题浮上台面，现下的保钓运动已经与当年的氛围不同，然而此一主题竟然已经延续了四十年，此时，我们该如何看待与谈论保钓？ 从中国认同到本土化的台湾社会 保钓运动是历经国民党二十多年白色恐怖统治、社会逐渐噤声后，首次发生的学生运动，周恩来称其为「海外的五四运动」。如同五四，它有着强烈的爱国主义色彩，并因参与者思想觉醒后各自的理念，带来左右路线之争。回到当年的时代脉络，爱国的这个「国」毫无疑问的指称「中国」。四十年后本土化认同已经占了至少半数人口比例，因而当我听见老保钓人以非常绝对的中国人认同强调其统派政治态度时，就因自己的台湾人认同而直觉产生不可避免的违和感――而这或许也正是台湾多数年轻人不可能进入保钓论述、进而关心保钓运动之因。当年「中国的土地可以征服，不可以断送；中国的人民可以杀戮，不可以低头」的民族主义色彩，如今更因为右派多较强调民族主义，无论是大中国主义或本土的福佬沙文主义（这种血统论的法西斯概念都没有任何说服力），而使原本民族主义的讨论氛围不再如当年。另一方面，左派固有理想色彩，却又在近二十年中国极速右转下，左统已经面临社会主义不再的僵局。 当年参与台大学生保钓运动、并有相关着作《青春之歌：追忆1970年代台湾左翼青年的一段如火年华》的作家郑鸿生谈起这个僵局里很重要的认同问题，「到了今天大家可以分出统独、左右、蓝绿，但那时没有统独，我们认为自己是战后台湾新生的一代，绝大多数人认同自己是中国人，跟呼吸空气一样自然。包括后来变成台独的，一开始也都没有怀疑自己是中国人。我们那时的历史传承没有断掉，保钓到今天为止仍继续维持这个历史传承。南方朔说保钓是外省人的，但我不同意，当时在台大加入保钓的，除了侨生，最多就是本地生，就是台湾人。」郑鸿生认为台独是因后续国民党扭曲打压而声势壮大，但如今台湾社会的变化，现实上已经无法由简单无争议的「我们都是中国人」认同概念出发。面对两岸之间悬而未决的关系，虽说显然绝大多数保钓人士仍倾向统派，却也必须在现况的社会氛围里找到对谈基础，正如郑村棋在大会中回应一位与会者「必须要统一，统一之后继续监督中国政府」之说的重话：「各位现在就可以跟我们一起上街头。至于统一，我为什么要先把一个资产阶级抬到我头上，然后再去反他？」 回到保钓当年的社会情况，在台大校园里发生的保钓运动与海外相比，有不同的发展。当时在台湾的大学生同样受六零年代国际上学生运动风潮、反越战和抗议民歌的启发，身处台湾的他们更切身感受威权政府的压迫，钓运因而成为后来串连争取言论自由、民主参与行动的滥觞。郑鸿生回忆当时，「在那之前校园多谈文艺、个人修养和爱情，这个是政权可以容许的，因为这样这些人就不会造反；一旦大学生开始去关心自己的土地、自己的人民，这就比较麻烦。之前是管得很严的，保钓带来这么大的影响，是很重要的。」在他的观察，保钓带来的省思有二，一是重新认识「我是谁？」这个大命题，二是开始质疑政府及当时被认为最进步最崇高的美国，由这两件事出发，进一步放下自己的中产阶级位置，去关怀自身所处的土地与文化，因而1972年底引发民族主义论战，后续文坛又发生乡土文学论战，都从当时的启发开始。这样的探寻，也开启学生对身处于第三世界位置的认知，而又与社会主义连结。1973年二月当局逮捕台大一批师生，1974年夏天又爆发台大哲学系事件，都是国民党政府对这连串行动的肃清。「在那两三年事件是一直在发生，没有『到此为止』、『结束』的感觉，那两三年也就不能好好读书。最重要的影响当然是开拓了我的视野。」郑鸿生微笑着说。 第三条路与青年观点 在历史重建中回归自身文化价值，开始关怀原生土地，是钓运中最重要也最与当代社会连结的部分，即是从当时隐藏在左右之争里的「第三条路」出发的这一群人，部分投入民主运动，部分投入文化继续经营其社会关怀理念，成为《夏潮》杂志作者群，八零年代陈映真创办的《人间》杂志亦延续了此一精神，并深刻影响了那一代如火如荼的社运、学运。四十周年大会筹备会召集人林孝信本身就是第三条路的代表性人物，在那两年烽火燎原的海外保钓运动后，他因黑名单而长年滞留美国，在芝加哥成立「台湾民主运动支援会」，接济赴海外的台湾民主运动、社会运动人士，虽身处异乡，却未曾与台湾社会断裂。他在大会的安排上，其实已刻意加重「连结当代台湾」的议程份量，第二天几乎皆是中生代、新生代社会运动者及观察者的发言，「比较可惜的是这些人第一天几乎都没来，没有听到老保钓人的想法。」他说。在连结的意义上是否成功，或许仍有待老保钓人从后起者的言论里如何去回应，而以不同议题遍地开花、却仍困难重重的当代社运环境又是否能认同保钓议题。 一位参与筹备的青年成员认为保钓议题在当代的困境除了已经过太久时间之外，更大的问题是其中的父权思想。我同样在会议中感受到这样的成分，「这个岛属于中国」这样从民族主义出发的「占有」核心概念本身就有些父权色彩，而长者的家父长之姿更不可避免的具有指导意味，年轻人本就倾向反抗上一代，又如何召唤已在反抗的年轻人去认同？「民族主义是七零年代无法和现在扣连的所在。世代理解历史的条件不同、进入历史的起点不同、史观不同，叙述的主体也不同。」这位青年成员说，「而保钓的未来性或许在于统合两岸的情感、文化上。当然，共议出来的也可能会改变。」 保钓议题在民族主义的立场上再分出左右，这却或许正具体而微的展现了国际政治上左右之争里，左派部分人士也执起民族大旗激化国族对立。从这位青年成员的言谈中，我才找到较贴近自己价值观的观点，「简单的说：把钓鱼台要回来干嘛？这个议题素朴到可以跟民族主义做结合，然而国际社群的想像更符合这个时代。象征性的占领，反而是对土地的不尊重，我们对土地要有新的论述。」他说，「我自己会觉得，保钓的意义在于搁置了钓鱼台的开发……我们该谈的是如何分享资源、认识彼此需求。」而郑村棋在会议中也提及：「如果开发乱挖，根本不左派。」 这样的想像在国际上总是不乏为资源发动战争的现实条件下看来，或许更乌托邦，然而所谓理想主义，不正有着知其不可而为之的成分？在环境问题益加严峻的今日，再以钓鱼台资源多么丰沛为保钓理由，无法使关心永续发展的青年世代认同，而绝对的左右之分，在新生代的我们看来也皆有其盲点。如果不检讨开发之弊、寻求较适当的资源利用方式，连现下原住民异议者反对财团进驻、反对政府建设的抗争也会丧失许多说服力，回归人类看待土地的态度本身，是这四十年岁月中长出的另一种回溯，回溯到更古早的历史之前，省思人与自然的关系。 落红不是无情物 第一天会议的论坛中，南方朔提及他认为九零年代后的社运已和保钓无关，其困境反而被民进党主导发展，也因历史的断裂而进入「无思想地带」，由自己本地的经验发展；钱永祥则提出许多检讨：「文革和学运给我们左派向往，在爱国主义和第三世界反帝反美两方面，冲突点却未被讨论。这两个传统如何在台湾乃至中国拥有力量？我们要的只是以民族主义解决钓鱼台问题吗？」对于世代之间的差异，他说：「我们失之于空疏，你们失之于零碎。」 事实上，两天在保钓议题下深度的相关谈论，许多学人对东亚与全球国际局势的观察都在在展现这群老保钓并未与当代社会脱节，综观而论，保钓重建历史和随之产生的论述确实打破了封闭年代里的厚墙，进而影响今日。「年轻一代被后现代主义影响了……但现在的发展确实有潜在受到保钓的影响。当时声音在1972年后消下去，但四十年后还有人会从欧美赶回来参加，就说明了力量仍在。」林孝信说，「保钓是高度理想主义的，台湾社会对保钓很苛责，肯定太少。刘大任说『保钓是所有运动里最纯洁的』，现在，台湾社会包括社运界理想主义色彩都弱了，甚至社运界有人把运动当垫脚石，保钓当时没有，黑名单里，没有人说要国赔什么的……我希望能重现这种精神。」他认为如今仍应坚持保钓，直接相关的原因是台湾渔民的权益、丰富的资源以及钓鱼台靠近台湾本岛而重要的国防考量。 或许正如郑鸿生所言，保钓留下的三项资产：青年运动的理想性格、历史社会的重新认识以及第三世界的觉醒场域，是与当代台湾社会连结的最大可能所在。拍摄电影、校园展览、争取写入公民教育，或者将林森公园命名为钓鱼台公园，都是这场大会中老保钓人思考提出的具体连结方式，又或许能由钱永祥的话思考保钓运动的另一个可能性：「我们有没有可能在这两天纪念完以后，不要再回顾，而开始针对华人世界的民主正义问题好好谈一谈？那么老保钓就没有白活了。」

张猛导演的《钢的琴》有一个巧妙的构思：下岗工人陈桂林为了在离婚时挽留住女儿，需要一架钢琴，但是他既没有钱买，去偷又搬不动，最后他决定自己制造一架钢琴。于是他一一寻找铸造厂下岗的旧日同事，杀猪的，修锁的，打麻将的，做小买卖的，以及退休的“汪工”等，他将这些人联合起来，在废弃的工厂开始铸造一架“钢的琴”。影片以这一故事为核心，让我们看到了后社会主义时期的工人状况，如果说下岗之前，这些工人是作为一个“阶级”而存在的，而在下岗之后，他们则分散地走向了各自的生活，他们不再作为一个集体而出现，而是散落在社会结构的不同层面，独自承担起了自己的生活。与以前相比，他们的生活不再有集体的保障，他们的精神也不再像以前那样昂扬或自信，而是处于挣扎与困顿之中，在这个时候，“制造钢琴”这一事件将他们团结在一起，他们又相聚在旧日的厂房之中，开始为一件“共同的事业”而奋斗，但是时过境迁，他们这时团聚在一起，与以前已经有了极大的不同，破败的厂房，巨大的管道，废弃的烟囱，都在说明一个时代已经结束，而他们重聚的欢欣与劳作的快乐和这些场景形成了鲜明的对比，有一种近乎荒诞的喜剧效果。这可以是一种双重“错位”，他们在一个不属于他们的时空中仍然延续了旧日的行为，这是时空上的错位，而另一方面，他们“联合起来”的目的也和以前有很大的不同，如果说在下岗之前他们铸造钢材是在为国家或社会主义事业做贡献，那么此次“联合起来”，则只是为了私人的目的，帮助陈桂林造一架钢琴，同时在这里，“钢琴”作为一种象征性的符号，则代表着另外一种生活方式——讲究格调或趣味的，中产阶级或资产阶级的生活方式。这样一种追求与他们“联合起来”的行为本身也构成了一种错位或反差，即在联合的过程中，他们并没有形成自身所处阶层的阶级意识，反而是另一阶层的阶级意识或主流的意识形态在向他们渗透，他们所努力的目标，不过是为陈桂林的小女儿提供另一社会阶层生活方式的象征性符号。在这里，他们所认同的价值观念与陈桂林前妻并无太大的不同，所不同的只是他们提供的方式更加艰难曲折而已。在此处我们也可以看出，昔日的“工人阶级”在经历了沧桑巨变之后，仍然没有生成自己的“主体性”，在思想意识上仍然为另一阶层的主流意识所主导，而并没有发掘出自己生活方式与思想意识的真正价值。但是另一方面，这些下岗工人毕竟联合起来了，那么是什么促使他们联合起来的呢？除了与陈桂林的私人友谊之外，我们还可以看到另一个重要的因素，那就是对集体的渴望与对昔日生活的美好情感，他们共同保有着对那一段生活的温暖回忆，那是他们生活中最值得珍惜与骄傲的日子。那不仅属于他们个人，也是属于钢铁产业乃至“东北老工业基地”的辉煌。正是这些美好的回忆，以及他们在过往生活中所形成的彼此之间的情感，让他们以一种新的方式走到了一起。在这里，值得注意的是他们的情感联系，这些工人在下岗后散落各处，从事着不同的行业，但是一旦遇到某一件事，他们还是可以重新凝聚在一起，可见他们之间的情感联系是那么坚固。而这样一种关系，既来自于现代化大产业在运行中所产生的协作需要，也来自于同一社区“熟人社会”所凝聚起来的情感，可以说是一种既现代又传统的关系。这一关系不同于传统农业社会的熟人关系，因为他们所从事的是现代化的钢铁产业，也不同于现代私人企业工人之间的彼此隔离，因为他们在生活之中也形成了紧密的联系，同时他们也不同于传统的以“义”为核心的江湖兄弟的关系，因为他们所从事的是一种以现代化与社会主义为目标的大业。但是这一关系也带有上述三种关系的某些特点，在这个意义上，他们之间的关系是有传统中国特色的阶级或同志关系，或者说是一种“阶级兄弟”关系，他们在阶级关系上叠加了“兄弟”关系，形成了一种独特而密切的现代人际关系。影片中对这种关系有着细致的把握，但也没有回避其内在的复杂性，人与人之间性格的差异，彼此之间的矛盾与纠葛，现在生活处境的不同，等等，但是这些内在的差异并没有成为他们彼此合作的障碍，反而更加丰富了他们之间的情感，让我们看到了他们的多面性及其内在的一致性。影片的整个故事逻辑正是建立在这种“阶级兄弟”关系之上，不过这是一种迟到的表演，是沧桑巨变之后的缅怀与追忆，也是一种深情的告别或对未来的期盼。在结构上，影片采取了类似《七武士》、《海角七号》的组织方式，不同的人物在面临一件大事时，经历种种波折、矛盾与纠葛，最后凝聚在一起，共同面对与解决了这一问题。在《七武士》中，这一事件是对付外来的强盗，在《海角七号》中，这一问题是组织一场音乐会，而在《钢的琴》中，这一事件则是制造一架钢琴。这样的组织方式的长处在于其丰富性与曲折性，如《七武士》便塑造了七位性格迥然不同的武士，《海角七号》也呈现了不同阶层的人物在组织音乐会这一事件上态度的差异，这一结构不易把握，如果处理不好，很容易散漫或散乱，是对主创人员结构能力的一个重要考验。《钢的琴》对这一结构有着较为出色的把握，影片中的陈桂林、淑娴、王抗美、大刘、胖头、二姐夫、汪工、季哥、“快手”等人，形象鲜明，个性突出，他们每个人都有着自己的故事，最终融汇到“造钢琴”这一大故事之中，在一个“集体”之中找到了自己的位置，他们既分工又协作，既有矛盾，又统一在一起。相比《七武士》、《海角七号》，由于《钢的琴》的结构方式与主题呈现相关，因而别具一番深意，他们的“组织起来”，是在下岗分散之后的重新“组织起来”，所以这一组织的过程也就更加引人深思，所以当影片中荒废的厂房中再度响起他们的欢声笑语，再度迸溅起钢花，再度充满忙碌的身影，他们所勾起的，不仅是历史的温情记忆，也是对现实的批判性反思。或者说，影片向我们展示了历史的另外一种可能性，让我们去想象：如果没有下岗或国企改制，他们的生活是否会更好一些？我们的国家是否可以更好一些？在这个意义上，我们也可以将这部影片与库斯图里卡的《地下》（《没有天空的城市》）、沃尔夫冈-贝克的《再见，列宁》加以比较，这两部影片也提供了反思历史的一种新视角，以轻盈的艺术构思让我们看到了历史的厚重。在库斯图里卡的《地下》中，革命已经结束，而被骗的革命领袖与他的同志转入“地下”，在那里继续坚持革命理想与斗志达20年之久，等他们终于发现这一骗局时，南斯拉夫已经沧桑巨变，面目全非，库斯图里卡以此来反思南斯拉夫的历史，而在《再见，列宁》中，儿子阿历克斯为了不刺激病中的母亲，隐瞒柏林墙倒塌，假装东德依然存在，于是在那间小公寓里，阿历克斯尽力描述着一场东德仍然繁荣昌盛的场面，从食品到服饰，甚至伪造电视新闻，最后他甚至导演了一出西德为东德统一的“戏剧”。在这里，我们看到了历史的另外一种可能性。在《钢的琴》中，虽然没有南斯拉夫、东德那样天翻地覆的巨变，但是中国的发展与时代的巨大转折，也让我们对另外一种生活与生产方式感到陌生，——那种集体的、“社会主义”的生活方式，被冠以“大锅饭”、“铁饭碗”的命名受到批判与否定，在市场经济时期已经失去了其“合法性”，影片则以一种新的方式将我们带到了那样的生活方式之中，让我们看到了那种生活方式曾有的温暖与美好回忆。但是这样的反思，是在双重隔离的效果之中达到的。如我们上述所言，小说在荒凉的厂房中再现了火热的劳作场面，具有一种强烈的时代对比，这种对比具有一种反讽性的戏剧效果，这可以说是一重“隔离”，另一重隔离则来自影片的艺术效果，影片在呈现上述场景时，配以欢快或怀旧的音乐，这些音乐的巧妙运用使我们在接近这一场景时又远离了“现实”，可以从一种有距离的高度面对这一切。这双重的隔离，将一种更加丰富的历史与艺术意蕴呈现在我们面前。我们不得不思考历史的另外一种可能性，在时代巨变之后，我们应该如何看待工人曾经有过的历史，如何面对工人当下的现实？影片对“转折”的戏剧性呈现，及巧妙的艺术构思，让我们可以像《地下》、《再见，列宁》一样，面对与思考这一历史转变对国家发展所带来的种种后果，并探索新的可能性。再见列宁中的母子另一方面，如果与描述工人生活的电视剧如《大工匠》、《钢铁年代》、《金婚》等作品相比，我们可以看到，这些电视剧几乎都以编年的形式讲述工人生活数十年的演变，它们所表现的是历史的“延续”，这一“延续”又因为故事的家族结构与个人成长史的讲述方式而得到加强，于是其中呈现出来的工人生活的故事便似乎是“自然而然”的变化，在其中我们很少能够看到历史的“转折”与“断裂”，在这里，“工人阶级”的故事便不是一个阶级的故事，而表现为“家务事，儿女情”，“工人阶级”命运的转折也不是一个整体性的叙述，而表现为家庭与个人命运的沉浮。这样讲述故事的方式虽然为电视观众所喜闻乐见，却缺乏对历史的一种总体性的认识和把握。而《钢的琴》不同，它所讲述的是历史的“断裂”与“转折”，将不同时代工人的生活方式，以艺术的方式“叠加”在一起，在巧妙的对比中，让我们看到了历史转折在每个人的生活与心中留下的印痕，这样的方式虽然不像上述电视剧那么面面俱到，但却从总体上让我们看到了“工人阶级”的历史经验与现实处境。在他们作为一个“阶级”瓦解之后，他们只能以个体的方式进入“历史”，因而是无力的，他们所拥有的只是个人技艺，但这种技艺在离开工厂之后又无用武之地，只能成为小生产者式的谋生的饭碗。在影片中，我们可以从不同的地方看到这一对比，在影片所营造的氛围中，我们可以看到“集体”时的火热与现在厂房的凋敝，“钢”这一意象，在过去的时代是“铁水奔流”的象征，而现在则是冰冷的，甚至是“废铁”，只有在“造钢琴”的过程中，才回光返照似的重现了昔日的火热与激情，而这只不过是转瞬即逝，在影片的结尾处，陈桂林的父亲去世，或许这真正象征着一个时代的结束。钢铁年代剧照张猛导演的《大耳朵有福》曾经引起电影界的广泛关注与好评，这部影片描写一个退休工人一天的生活，他生病的老伴，被羞辱的女儿，在外惹事的儿子，无人照顾的老父亲，以及他漫长而艰辛的寻找新工作的过程。影片以生活流的方式展现了他生活中的方方面面，让我们看到了一个底层小人物的现实处境及其喜怒哀乐，这部影片深入到人物的生活与内心深处，较之某些描述底层生活的纪录片与故事片，更深刻细腻地表现了这一阶层的生活世界。而作为他的第二部作品，《钢的琴》与《大耳朵有福》既有区别又有联系，两者的相同之处在于它们所关注的都是底层小人物或“工人阶级”的历史与现实处境，甚至《大耳朵有福》中的主人公王抗美，在《钢的琴》也作为一个次要人物出现，更是将两部影片联系在一起，也显示出创作者创作“系列影片”的艺术雄心。两者的不同之处主要在于艺术表现方式，《大耳朵有福》是以接近纪录风格的“生活流”表现主人公的生活，而《钢的琴》则更体现了创作者艺术上的精巧构思，但是这一艺术化的表现不仅没有削弱对生活的深入，反而以新的方式让我们从一个更加开阔的视野去看待工人生活的变化。在艺术表现上，二者也有相似之处，那就是音乐元素的出色运用，这些革命歌曲、通俗歌曲与钢琴曲，不仅象征着不同时代的风格与文化理想，而且也将我们带到了历史与时代的深处，让我们可以从总体上思考工人生活的变化，历史的转折，以及新的可能性。

当前中国出现的关于土地制度的不切实际的浪漫主义情绪，是十分误导且有害的。中国土地制度具有很好的优势，完善而非改变当前的中国土地制度，才是我们需要努力的方向。

雾社起义"的爆发，在统治者方面，也引起了一片混乱，“总督府想化小处理，目的在缩小责任范围。而军部想扩大处理，目的在于增兵台湾，""据云已有增设两个师团的具体计划，为准备将来的日美战争，应付对立的菲律宾作谁备。"

中国从来就不是一个唯由汉人组成的国家，而是一个由多民族、多元文化组成的国家，所以海外华侨的概念应该也不只是指旅居海外的汉族同胞。尽管在西藏问题上，海外藏胞目前与中国政府站在完全对立的立场上，但海外华侨切不能因此而排斥他们、与他们严重对抗，相反应该理解、尊重、善待和团结他们，他们也是我们的同胞兄弟。

大型水坝是人类工业文明的标志。经过近百年的发展，多数发达国家已经进入后大坝时代，对筑坝的生态环境和社会负面影响进行深刻反思，在此背景下国际反坝运动蓬勃发展。本文考察了国际反坝运动的发展过程，剖析了其局限性和合理性及其对发达国家和发展中国家不同的含义，并提出我国在水坝和水电发展政策及决策机制方面进行调整的思路。

书评：岳谦厚、张玮著《黄土·革命与日本入侵》（书海出版社，二〇〇五年八月版）

我们需要做很多事情，但首要的一点就是促进南方的觉醒。或许很多北方国家并不理解这一点，但北方的未来依靠南方。

3月11日，为纪念五四运动90周年，《国家历史》大讲堂联合首都师范大学学生会，邀请北京大学钱理群教授在首都师范大学小礼堂做了题为“五四新文化运动中的鲁迅”的讲座。钱理群是我国著名学者、文学理论家，鲁迅、周作人研究专家。

本文以法律移植与现代国家转型为背景，考察了最近20年来法理学思潮从马克思主义法理学到法律文化论和法律现代化论的内在发展逻辑，作者提出这些主流思潮坚持一种“没有国家的法律观”，它不仅是法律移植的政治意识形态得产物，而且是法律共同体的职业意识形态的产物。这种思考与法学家的自我身份认同密切相关，由此被称为“法律人的法理学”。基于反思这种法理学在处理国家与法律关系上的方法论误区，作者考察了当代法理学中的边缘学说，即实用主义法理学，对整个主流思潮的批判，以及由此形成本土主义方法论与本土主义政治立场之间的张力。在此基础上，作者提出“立法者的法理学”，试图在更广阔的理论背景上，重新把国家与政治作为法理学思考的中心，从而在技术意义上整合“ 法律人的法理学”，思考中国在民族国家与文明国家的转型中面临的理论问题。

国际经济危机的蔓延和中国政府采取强有力的应对措施是当前中国社会生活中的重要事件。以此为背景，本文运用社会学概念和工具，对经济危机传导的社会机制、从经济问题向社会问题传导的社会机制，以及政府应对经济危机的政策措施问题进行了探讨。

The institutional conditions of practical progress

The complete text of "Plasticity into Power: Comparative Historical Studies in the Institutional Conditions of Economic and Military Success," which forms part of the Politics series. The book was originally published in 1988 and is to be republished by Verso in the near future. It explores, in comparative historical detail, an idea that plays a major role in my social-theoretical writings: the idea of the practical as well as the moral advantages of institutional arrangements and discursive practices that facilitate their own revision.

"Plasticity into Power" was published by Verso in a new paperback edition in 2004 together with "False Necessity" and "Social Theory: Its Situation and Its Task." To order this book go to the "my books" section of this website.

曾留学日本的李大钊，目睹近代日本城市化的进程，对日本城市的繁华与弊病有真切的观感与思考。在此基础上，他思考了近代中国城市建设的诸多问题，提出了推进中国城市建设的具体构想。