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东京电力公司为全球最大民营核供应商

 2009年12月15～16日，中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所主办的“俄罗斯东欧中亚与世界高层论坛”在北京举行。来自全国40多所科研机构与高等院校的l00余名专家学者参加了这次论坛。现将论坛讨论的有关问题综述如下。 政治部分 关于俄罗斯的政治局势。与会者认为，俄罗斯的政局基本是稳定的，这与梅普组合直接相关。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所吴恩远研究员认为，分析俄罗斯政局的稳定，首先要界定政治稳定的概念。如果说指的是制度性的变动、政局替换、大规模的街头政治甚至内乱，那么俄罗斯在下一届大选之前肯定不会出现这样的情况。但是俄罗斯政局在保持总体稳定的情况下仍然隐含着变数，梅普关系是影响这种变数的一个重要因素。从内因看，俄罗斯经济在可预见的将来很难有大的改观，普京作为总理难辞其咎。梅普在治国理念有较大差异，梅德韦杰夫更倾向于西方的自由民主理念，俄罗斯有学者甚至将他与戈尔巴乔夫相提并论;而普京更强调威权政治。这种差异也影响到干部体制的变化。另外，社会舆论发生了变化，上层学者之间的激烈论争会加大梅普在许多问题上的分歧。从外因看，奥巴马上台后对俄罗斯的核心利益给予了一定的宽容，会使梅德韦杰夫在一定程度上改变对西方的态度，从而影响到俄罗斯的内政。 上海社会科学院潘大渭研究员认为，俄罗斯国内政局的稳定与下列因素有关。首先，从权力结构形成的过程来看，叶利钦把权柄交给普京并不是个人的选择，而是对俄罗斯对外政策和国内发展方向做出反思后才决定的。第二，普京在执政八年中构建了一个相对稳定的政治领导层，它所起的稳定作用实际上超出了我们的想象。第三，梅德韦杰夫基本上沿袭了普京的执政理念和发展道路。另外从社会层面看，俄罗斯社会结构的变化趋于稳定，社会心理趋于成熟，改变了过去那种彷徨、不知所措的状况。 新华社盛世良研究员认为，在梅普组合中梅德韦杰夫并没有成为一个非常独立的政治家，政治上还处于从属地位。从干部队伍来看，普京任命的干部占77．4％，梅德韦杰夫任命的只有9．4％；从权力资源看，普京控制的是政府的经济板块、议会、政权党、审计署、地区议会，梅德韦杰夫控制的主要是总统办、安全会议和强力部门。因此，不管是干部资源还是权力资源，基本上还是普京的。 中国国际问题研究基金会副会长于振起先生则认为，现在是“没有普京的普京时代”。所谓梅普组合出现问题,在相当程度上是美国制造的，其目的就是要挑唆梅普之间的关系。奥巴马访俄时的一些举动有着明确的政治意图，梅普之后的公开亮相很大程度上消除了外界的疑虑。如果当初普京有继续连任总统的野心，他完全可以效仿卢卡申科；他选定梅德韦杰夫作为接班人，表明他对梅德韦杰夫以及自己的政治基础有充分的信心。 关于俄罗斯政治进程及发展道路。中国社会科学院张树华研究员认为，俄罗斯的未来的社会发展道路，包括政治发展道路，还处在探索之中，它的发展方向和目标没有最终定型。与此相关，作为理论支撑的历史观、发展观和价值观等方面也没有定型。从社会层面来看，俄罗斯还没有形成良好的社会机制，市场、机制等各方面的制度建设还差得很远,在一二十年中都难以建立起来。 复旦大学杨心宇教授认为，从法学的角度来看，从普京到梅德韦杰夫的这个时期是一个新制度的建构过程，2008年11月俄罗斯纪念l993年宪法的颁布，给两个主要起草的领导人授予了国家最高荣誉勋章，这说明制度的构建要树立宪法的权威。俄罗斯的宪法不一定跟民主相联系，它是跟制度、法制联系在一起的。这些年普京与梅德韦杰夫的政治实践．其实是在建梅一种稳定的政治结构、社会结构和政权结构，为今后的发展建立一个稳定的法制与秩序条件。 中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所薛福岐博士认为，梅德韦杰夫就任总统以来所提出的改革措施，都是一些技术性的安排，从来都没有涉及到普京体制的根本，俄罗斯政治发展的现状是使最高权力稳定延续下去。作为政权党的“统一俄罗斯”党，其作用是整合国内的政治精英，将精英之间的分歧和竞争控制在一定的范围之内，从而保持政治的基本稳定，使俄罗斯的政治发展变的可以预测。 盛世良研究员认为，俄罗斯的政治发展处于一种矛盾的境地，2009年俄罗斯的经济表现不论在七国，几国还是二十国集团当中都是最差的。俄罗斯认识到它的经济很脆弱，主要不是世界金融危机的影响，而是自身的问题；而且今年它的国际环境变化更为恶劣。在这种情况下，俄罗斯的政治似乎要发生变化，但这种变化的可能性又不是很大。梅德韦杰夫在9月10号发表《俄罗新，前进！》，大谈自由、民主和法制，基调跟普京有根大的距离。但是三个多月过去了，其实并没有大的变化，如果俄罗斯真要经济现代化，那就要跟西方改善关系，但这又会跟它现在的政治体制发生很大的矛盾。因此俄罗斯的经济现代化将非常困难。 关于俄罗斯的政治思潮。中国社会科学院外国文学所董晓阳研究员认为，近些年来俄罗斯无论上层的指导思想还是社会思潮，都出现了回归传统观念的倾向，这是在俄罗新社会制度变化以及走向现代化过程中一个非常重要的和必然的表现。对斯大林的评价虽然是一个正视历史的问题，但并不只是一个历史问题，它体现了俄罗斯社会和上层追求社会发展的完整性与价值观的回归。另外，它不仅仅是国内的进程，也是关涉到苏联在世界历史进程中，特别是在二战中的历史地位的评价问题，因此也是一个国际化的问题。 杨心宇教授认为，俄罗斯对斯大林问题、苏联历史问题的重新审视是出于三方面的目的。首先是要寻求历史的客观真实，维护俄罗斯民族的自尊，防止在历史中形成一个巨大的污点，在道义上处于一种弱势地位。第二，说明斯大林和苏联时期他们的做法的历史背景和历史理由，比如在李宾特洛甫和莫洛托夫条约上，俄罗斯强调在战争期间要维护自己的利益只能这样做，即使说不道义，但也没有别的办法。这种解释不能说是为斯大林平反。第三，俄罗斯需要澄清一些问题，防止被进一步妖魔化。 关于俄罗斯东欧政治研究的内容与方法。华东师范大学冯绍雷教授提出了俄罗斯东欧中亚研究方面的多项议题。首先，如何判断俄罗新东欧中亚地区20年的政治转型？政治转型中一个突出的问题是政党体制，它究竟已经成熟稳定，还是处于形成之中？其次，从l989年到1991年推动前苏联和东欧地区改革的思潮背景主要是新自由主义，20年后对这种思潮究竟该给以何种评价？思潮变迁对一个国家内部体制构建的影响力到底如何？第三，对于政治转型过程当中的各种要素值得做一些深入的分析，如国家与市民社会的关系、领袖的作用、知识分子以及其他一些群体是的形成和互动，等等。 美于中东欧局势。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所高歌研究员认为，2009年中东欧国家的政治发展继续按原既定的轨道，即向多党制和议会制推进。一些国家进行了议会和总统选举，但没有大的政治波折。从20年历程来看，中东欧国家政治发展的轨迹比较明显；这种既定的发展方向未来也不会改变。中东欧国家的政治发展与俄罗斯不同，受外部环境的影响非常大。一战以来几次重大的道路选择受外界的影响非常大，l989年后在道路的选择上固然与国内政治力量的对比有关，但欧盟的作用不可忽视。 关于独联体局势。中国社会科学院东欧中亚研究所赵常庆研究员总结了2009年中亚地区的局势。他认为，虽然金融危机给中亚各国带来了不少问题，但中亚地区的政治局势基本稳定。一个主要的原因是政权力量相当大，反对派力量非常弱小。中亚各国的安全形势没有太大变化，美国增兵阿富汗，将塔利班武装压缩在南方地区。这对中亚国家的安全形势较为有利。同时由于阿富汗战争的缘故，中亚地区的战略地位有所上升。于振起副会长认为，2009年独联体国家的政治形势比较平静、稳定，明年唯一值得关注的是乌克兰大选，大选的结果直接关系到乌克兰的国家发展方向。 经济部分 关于俄罗斯状况。根据中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所陆南泉研究员的分析，2009年俄罗斯经济遭受了严重的冲击，2000～2008年间，俄罗斯经济一直保持较快的增长。2008年第三、四季度，在金融危机的冲击下，GDP仍保持5．6％增长率．8008年末2009年初，社会各界普遍认为，2009年俄罗斯经济会有所下降，但不至于剧烈滑坡。然而，金融危机对俄罗斯经济的冲击却出乎预料，俄罗斯经济在2009年遭到重创，自2000年以来首次出现负增长，下滑幅度超过了二十国集团及金砖四国。2009年1月至10月，GDP同比下降9．6％；棒德韦杰夫估计，2009年降幅为7．5％；世界银行认为降幅可达8. 7％。俄罗斯甚至认为，其经济跻身于金砖四国已名不符实。 俄罗斯经济危机的形成路径。上海国际问题研究院李新研究员认为，俄罗斯本次经济危机由外部输入，首先在金融部门引发，然后对实体部门形成冲击，国际金融危机爆发引起外资抽逃，导致金融市场崩溃．2008年9月19日，证券指数暴跌42％。证券市场的危机产生了以下四方面影响：一是卢布汇率贬值，发生银行挤兑，卢布储蓄转变为外汇储蓄。2009年10月，银行总存款的6％被提走。二是削弱了银行提供贷款的能力。证券暴跌带来的损失，占银行总资本的l0％～20％。三是降低了俄罗斯企业在国内外通过有价证券获取抵押贷款的能力．四是由于先前提供抵押贷款的证券严重贬值，恶化了公司外债状况。随后，金融部门的危机蔓延到实体经济部门，建筑业和冶金行业首先遭到冲击。能源、原材料国际价格大幅下跌，导致俄罗斯能源和原材料出口下降，冶金采矿业大量裁员。金融部门的危机，引发了流动性危机，产品销售困难，许多企业减产、停产，甚至破产倒闭，失业大幅上升。2009年1月至9月．俄罗斯GDP下降l0％。2009年上半年，全球主要经济体中，只有俄罗斯衰退超过l0％。 俄罗斯2009年经济受重创的原因。与会者认为，可以从四个方面来进行分析。第一，俄罗斯经济的对外依赖性与出口结构问题。俄虽然不是WT0成员，但全球化程度已很深。对外资的依赖程度达50％～70％，对外贸易是支撑其经济增长的重要因素。2009年1月至10月，俄罗斯对外贸易下降了41．1％，其中，出口下降42．3％，进口下降38．9％，俄罗斯出口结构问题更为严重，2009年1～10月，能源出口占出口总额的66．3％；由于国际油气价格大幅下跌，俄能源部门向财政提供的资金剧减，2009年1～9月，俄罗斯进口的机器设备比同期下降53．9％，其次，内需乏力，金融危机以来，俄罗新试图通过增加投资，向银行发放贷款、降低税务等途径刺激经济，但效果不明显。随着财政状况的恶化，国家预算款项难以落实，已有43个联邦主体托欠工资，居民购买力降低，零售商品流转额大幅下降。第三，实体经济大幅萎缩。俄罗斯对企业投入了1万亿卢布。但仍未能顶住金融危机的冲击。2009年1～10月，俄工业产值下降了l3．7亿美元，大多数重要的工业产品大幅度下降。第四，经济结构问题，长期以来，俄罗斯仍未改变以出口能源、原材料为主导的经济发展模式。本次危机中，俄罗新的荷兰病表现得非常明显，在整个苏联时代，选种畸形的经济结构一直没能解决。要改变这种经济结构，是非常困难的。 对俄罗斯发展模式的反思。李新研究员认为，经济原料化的发展模式与经济自由化的战略构成了俄罗斯经济危机的根源。20世纪90年代，俄金融领域实行自由化，国家对金融的干预、监督几乎成为盲点。于是危机首先从金融部门，通过自由化渠道转移到国内。2006年7月1日，俄罗斯政府实现了卢布的完全自由兑换，打开了俄罗斯市场的最后一道闸门，20世纪90年代，俄罗斯选择了错误的改革战略，在改革过程中形成的资本主义模式，再一次经历着严重危机，21世纪前7年，俄经济快速发展，外部市场行情良好，精英阶层难以清醒地判别新自由主义的优劣，对其新自由主义改革能力的极限难以准确衡量。因此未对国内经济结构进行调整。俄罗斯的改革者只相信市场，只关心金融的自由化。然而，对实体经济的发展，则缺乏长期思路。 对俄罗斯经济前景的预测。国际能源价格的变动对俄经济前景具有重大影响，根据国际油价的变化情况以及国际市场的能源、原材料的需求的变动，与会者对俄罗斯经济发展趋势有两种估计：一种是U型或者V型。油价稳定上升，俄罗斯经济复苏；另一种估计是，油价跌至每桶40美元，经济前景可能呈现W型。与会学者的共同的看法是，2010年俄罗斯的经济形势将优于09年，世界经济形势的好转将对俄罗斯经济产生直接影响，使2010年的经济形势有所改善。 关于中东欧经济形势。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所孔田平研究员认为，中东欧经济在2009年陷入全面衰退，但未出现极端严重的恶化。之所以如此，一是过去20年中东欧国家建立了市场经济框架，其制度效应仍在发挥作用；二是外国银行的存在对中东欧经济起到了稳定作用，西欧银行未把资金大量撤回，使金融部门保持了相对健康；三是外国直接投资仍保持相当大的存量，未出现大规模撤资的现象，这是非常重要的稳定因素；四是经济政策比较得当，及时调整了财政、货币政策，增加了金融部门的流动性；五是反危机的国际协调支持了困境中的中东欧国家；六是外部经济环境有所改善，从第二季度起，中东欧国家的出口市场——法国和德国，出现了经济复苏的迹象，孔田平研究员认为，在发展模式上，作为小型开放经济体，中东欧国际对外贸与外资的依赖格局难以发生根本改变。在东西欧金融一体化方面，过去l0年中，西欧的商业银行控制了中东欧国家的大多数商业银行，促进了中东欧经济的增长，但是东西欧之间金融的密切联系，有可能加剧危机的传播，在经挤结构的多元化与多样化方面，近年来中东欧很多国家过度依赖于汽车制造业，一旦西欧经济不景气，汽车销售必然受到冲击。中东欧国家的转轨已无法逆转，在金融危机的强烈冲击下有可能放缓，但不会出现严重的政治动荡或政治危机，该地区的宪政民主框架也不会遭到强有力的挑战。 中亚2009年经济形势。新疆社会科学院院胡红萍副研究员对中亚五国的经济进行了评估。首先，经济增幅剧降。哈萨克斯坦受到的冲击最为严重。塔吉克斯坦，吉尔吉斯斯坦、土库曼斯坦经济均大幅下挫。乌兹别克斯坦经济较为封闭，金融体系较保守，受危机冲击最轻。其次，外贸出口受到严重冲击，国际原材料价格大幅下跌，导或哈萨克斯坦和土库曼斯坦原材料出口大幅下滑。由于原材料和生产需求下降，中亚国家的能源和原材料收入悦减，乌兹别克斯坦的鞠花出口、塔吉克斯坦的铝制品出口均大幅下滑。第三，金融信贷体系受到冲击，大量热钱外逃，导致哈萨克斯坦金融业流动性危机，银行无款可贷，面临全面破产，只能靠国家基金维持运转。第四，工业生产大幅下滑，引发大量失业，加深了该地区的贫困化程度。第五，房地产价格回调。第六，境外劳务收入减少。由于俄、哈两国受到金融危机的沉重打击，吉尔吉斯斯坦和塔吉克斯坦在俄、哈的务工人员被迫回国，劳务汇款下降。随着劳务收入下降，两国经济面临困境。 2009年是中亚各国非常困难的一年。下半年形势有所改善，部分得益于中亚国家采取了一些较为有效的反危机政策，但其主要原因是，2009年下半年，国际市场能源、原材料价格回升，从总体看，中亚各国当前的经济形势仍不容乐观。 外交部分 关于中俄美三边关系。对中俄美“三边”，抑或“三角”关系这个概念，有一些不同看法，中国国际问题研究基金会王海运主任认为中俄美三角关系客观上是存在的。中俄美分量相当，可以构成三角关系，三者之间也存在互动关系。中国的国际战略运筹也必须建立在这样一个基本判断上。中美关系发展正在加深俄罗斯本来已经存在的战略疑虑，俄罗斯对中美关系的疑虑一向很深。现在这个问题就更加突出，俄罗斯大国主义情节很强，把G2看成是对其大国地位的贬损，第二种观点倾向于不使用三角关系这个概念，主张淡化它。李静杰研究员认为，现在中俄、中美关系无论内容，实质都和以前不同。中国没有完全倒向美国，中美也有共同利益。复旦大学赵华胜教授坚持表示，中俄美三边是存在的，但就2009年这个时段量来看，中俄美三边淡化了，因为三边基本上是一个地缘政治的概念，在金融危机背景下，经济是今年国际政治的主题。 北京师范大学李兴教授提出一个双向双线同盟的概念。冷战时期的结盟，或者源于共同威胁，或是为了得到红利。而现在的结盟，是为了完成某项战略任务。他认为现在的中俄、中美关系具有双向同盟的特点。外交学院杨闯教授则表示，中俄战略协作伙伴关系似乎不等于同盟，中美中俄间也没有条约义务． 关于中俄关系。一种观点认为中俄关系的重要性是不可替代的。王海运主任认为对俄罗斯中国必须高度重视，俄罗斯对中国的战略价值不可替代。无论从安全战略，发展战略来说都是这样，设想如果失去俄罗斯这样一个战略伙伴，这些年，中国将是什么处境？今后若干年在国际大变动中中国将是什么样的处境？这个是要考虑的。4300公里的共同边境，这是最重要的地缘战略现实，这个改变不了。北方邻国对我国及其重要，必须像重视中美关系那样重视中俄关系，中国的地缘战略现实，中国实现民族复兴，中国对国际环境的需求，要求我们同时处理好对美对俄关系。动态地决定对美对俄关系中各项事务的轻重缓急。而不是一定是一对关系服从另一对关系。 李静杰研究员提出一个独特的视角。他认为世界上大多数国家，都有华人、华侨，中国城，只有俄罗斯没有，而俄罗斯还是我们的邻国。去了没多少人，就大喊中国移民威胁。他特别表示，对俄对美外交要很好平衡，避免出现偏差。同时，他提出中俄关系不能建立在第三国的基础上，应该建立在一个理性的框架上，这个框架就是我们是邻居，必须友好相处，这是最可靠的。 杨闯教授表示，要珍视中俄战略伙伴关系，4300公里的共同边界不能改变，这为政治互信，发展全面关系打定了基础。尽管俄在军品贸易上还对中国保持戒心。但是也应看到，金融危机后，两国在能源领域合作领域还是取得了进展。中国进口能源多元化和俄罗斯能源出口多元化有不完全一致的地方，但是中国和俄罗斯能源合作的前景还是很好。中国有些方面不能盲目跟随俄罗斯，例如阿布哈兹和南奥赛梯问题，中国没有承认，这是坚持独立自主外交的一个体现。 中国国际问题研究所陈玉荣研究员认为，要倚重中俄关系这条线，周边安全是第一位的考虑．中俄关系对多极化、上合组织、中国西北东北安全至关重要，中俄有很多共识，这与美国有很大的差异。解决俄罗斯的疑虑，主要是两个问题：一是战略互信，例如G2，二是中国威胁论，对于贸易结构不平衡的同题，中国要做解释工作。 军事科学院陈学惠研究员主张，今后应少用拓展利益这种提法，这是传统的地缘政治思维。维护国家利益的提法更好一些。中国不能走过去大国的旧路，应走一条新路。 赵华胜教授表示，中俄关系今年有几个特点。一是低级政治越来越影响到高级政治。二是中国开始占了主动，包括在能源领域。另外，几个具体的事件，新星号事件、大市场事件，G2的提出、中国中亚管道的开通，都对中俄关系有比较大的影响。 关于俄美关系。李静杰研究员认为，一个国家的崛起，压是压不住的，俄美主要是两个基本矛盾：一个战略平衡，一个地缘政治。戈尔巴乔夫当年提出新思维，同意开放柏林墙，一个约定是北约不东扩。西方不遵守，俄罗斯也没有办法。北约东扩，先到东欧国家，再到前苏联国家，俄国人也说，如果乌克兰加入北约，俄罗斯就回到了莫斯科大公国那个时代。俄罗斯还是不能接受苏联解体，还是视原苏联为自己的势力范围，希望重新一体化。西方则希望固化苏联解体。这个地缘政治现实不会改变。俄与美主要是这两个矛盾。 杨闯教授认为，美国对外政策变化有，但基本的美国战略目标没有改变。就是美国要充当世界的领导，充当世界的霸主；维持美元在世界的中心地位，这不会改变。美俄基本战略矛盾没有改变。今年美国在中欧导弹问题上做了一个调整，来换取年底前签署第一阶段削减战略武器条约新约，但是美俄在欧洲的基本战略矛盾没有改变。 陈玉荣研究员认为，2009年俄美关系有变化，有调整。两国关系从俄格战争的紧张关系中走了出来。美国在东欧反导问题上作了让步，俄美也签署了通过俄境向阿富汗运输军需物资的条约。俄美结构性矛盾没有发生变化，策略上有变化。 关于中东欧国家、俄罗斯与北约东扩。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所朱晓中研究员认为，国内在探讨俄与欧盟关系时，对中东欧的因素注意不够。现在有新老欧洲的说法，尽管很多欧洲人不承认，但事实上是存在的。以波兰为首的新东欧有抱负的国家，对欧盟对外关系起了重要作用，波兰对欧俄关系．起了一定阻碍甚至负面作用。在欧盟和美国的关系中，则起了排头兵的作用。中东欧国家在欧盟里面，又和美国结盟。现在中东欧国家在军事政治上靠拢美国，在政治经济上和欧洲联盟站在一起，这样将对欧洲一体化施加某种干扰性的作用。2008年以来，俄罗斯以石油为武器．部分返回东欧，现在参与俄罗斯输气计划的有保加利亚、匈牙利、斯洛文尼亚。以后，欧盟的对俄政策，能源政策，都会有中东欧国家的影子。目前看，在欧盟对俄的关系中，新东欧的作用不太好。今后，欧盟对俄外交很难有一个顺畅的决策过程。俄与欧盟最基本的矛盾是欧盟和俄罗斯到底视对方为什么角色。2004年，欧盟扩大，俄将欧盟视为北约的附属品，相互信任发生改变。当年普京第二任期开始，俄罗斯对欧盟的政策发生了一个大的转变。2004年之前俄罗斯视欧盟为值得效仿的经济楷模，2004年后，俄罗斯强调第三条道路，俄式民主，变成斯拉夫主义者，这是一个实质性的转变。 争论比较多的是北约东扩。中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所郑羽研究员认为，北约东扩初期应包含四个意图：美国在欧洲的领导权问题；解决欧洲的德国还是德国的欧洲问题；冷战后东欧不稳定的问题；对俄罗斯帝国潜在的担心。对北约东扩，考虑到俄罗斯的担忧，也考虑到中东欧国家的担忧，现在中国表示不赞成用扩大军事同盟方式来解决冷战后的安全问题。这个表述是适当的。中东欧国家的行为，更多的是考虑1985年以前苏联外交政策和文化而做出的判断。l991年以来，俄罗斯外交政策对中东欧国家基本没有敌视或歧视性行为，但是中东欧国家对俄罗斯还是不放心。看来，中东欧国家和俄国都需要新的思维，新的观念。 中央党校左凤荣教授提出，北约东扩这个问题，中国不能跟着俄罗斯的观点走。似乎也应该从中东欧国家的角度看这个问题，理解他们对自己安全利益的担忧，理解他们自主的选择。北京大学关贵海教授认为，现在虽然俄罗斯政策对东欧没有造成威胁，但俄罗斯有历史错误，历史形成的错误要相当长的时间去修正。民族的历史记忆不会三年五年就消除。 李兴教授认为，冷战思维双方都有，东欧小国也有冷战思维，北约内部也保留了这种思维。中东欧强国也有跟着强国走的传统。过去紧跟苏联，现在跟美国，都有这个因素。说东欧搞社会主义完全是苏联压迫，也不符合事实。陈学惠研究员表示，关键问题是，用集团政治的方法解决安全问题合适不合适？维持欧洲安全有两种观点，一种是欧洲采取的，冷战思维。另一种是俄罗斯提出来的，集体安全。俄罗斯现在又有新的提法。问题是，没有俄罗斯赞成的欧洲安全体系是不是真正的安全体系？北约到底是维护欧洲还是维护欧洲以外的安全？科索沃事件后北约在欧洲无事可干，现在跑到阿富汗。北约目标发生了转变。中东欧加入北约目的何在，加入能省钱吗？实际上代价是很高的，短期的代价非常高，因为要按北约的标准重组军队。 阿富汗问题。一种观点认为，如果美国在阿富汗得手，那北约和美国就到了咱们家门口了，中国不应该欢迎。赵华胜教授认为中国在这一地区的利益是非常复杂的，有地缘政治方面的，也有非传统安全的和经济上的。如果美国失败，周边的安全局势会大大恶化。阿富汗内战，巴基斯坦核失控的危险会大大增加。恐怖势力受到鼓舞，我们在阿富汗的投资、合同都要失效。从这个角度看，我们不能认为美国失败对我们是有好处的。但是地缘政治的问题和其他问题如何平衡调节，确实是一个有难度的问题。关于瓦罕走廊，杨闯教授表示，向美国开放瓦罕走廊的看法极为危险，极为短视。瓦罕走廊是我们手中的一张牌，不能轻易出手。美对阿富汗、伊拉克战争未得到联合国授权。师出无名，没有政治号召力。美国在台湾问题上不放弃牵制中国，不肯废弃《与台湾关系法》。如果满足美国要求，是非常不明智的。开放瓦罕走廊，对中国安全不利，对新疆稳定不利，会得罪一大批阿拉伯国家和伊斯兰国家。中国外交基础是发展中国家，阿拉伯国家和伊斯兰国家是我们外交非常重要的借重力量。   

经典作品是那些你经常听人家说“我正在重读……”而不是“我正在读……”的书。经典是这样一种东西，它很容易将时下的兴趣所在降格为背景噪音，但同时我们又无法离开这种背景噪音。

主要是介绍内容

写于1973，将精神分析、电影理论、以及女性主义融合，指出“在她们传统的裸露癖角色中，女性既被观看又被展示，她们的外表为了强烈视觉与色情冲击而被编码，甚至可以说内涵是“待被看性”－－ to-be-looked-at-ness。”

起源于19世纪中期的斯拉夫主义、大西洋主义以及产生于20世纪初期的欧亚主义，是历史上影响俄国社会发展的三大社会思想，这三大社会思想的相互冲撞，制约着社会发展的方向。20世纪90年代，这三大社会思想及其支持者之间又展开激烈的争论，引起人们的注意。

20世纪是中国与非洲共命运的世纪，主要表现在列强瓜分、社会剧变、民族复兴和国家建设方面。中国学界对非洲经历了从相识、支持、了解到研究的过程。①从中国经济走上快车道以来，国外对中国十分关注，中国的对非洲政策也引起各种反响。2006年1月《中国对非洲政策文件》的发表标志着21世纪中国对非洲政策日趋成熟。学者们在论及中国对非洲政策时一般强调其连续性，而忽略其调适与变化。改革开放以来，中国对非洲政策受到新时期战略决策的影响，已逐步完成意识形态从强调到弱化、交流领域从单一到多元，以及合作性质从注重经济援助到强调互利双赢的三重转变。 意识形态：从强调到弱化 改革开放以来，中国对非洲政策发生重大变化，这主要受到两个因素影响：中国对国际形势的判断（和平与发展成为世界两大主题）；中国战略思想的转变（重点转入国内经济建设）。对非洲政策的第一个变化是从强调意识形态上的结盟转为在意识形态领域求同存异的基础上加强交流与对话。这种变化主要是针对政党关系，但也表现在国家间的交往方面。 中国自20世纪50年代初提出“和平共处五项原则”后，又于60年代初提出了对非洲关系“五项立场”和经济援助“八项原则”。1963年12月～1964年2月，周恩来总理访问了亚、非、欧14国，其中有10个非洲国家。在访问非洲途中，他提出了中国处理非洲关系的立场和原则。②在与阿尔及利亚总统本。贝拉的会谈中，周总理强调中国坚持以下立场：支持非洲人民反对帝国主义和新老殖民主义、争取和维护民族独立的斗争；支持非洲各国政府奉行和平中立的不结盟政策；支持非洲人民用自己选择的方式实现团结和统一的愿望；支持非洲国家通过和平协商解决彼此之间的争端；主张非洲国家的主权应得到一切国家尊重，反对来自任何方面的侵犯和干涉。③“五项立场”旗帜鲜明地反帝反殖，是中国对非洲政策的重要宣示，其意识形态的针对性十分明确。1964年1月18日，周恩来在加纳回答记者提问时正式提出了中国对外提供经济技术援助的“八项原则”：根据平等互利的原则，不将援助看作单方面的赐予，认为援助是相互的；援助时绝不附带任何条件，绝不要求任何特权；提供的无息或低息贷款需要时可延长期限，以减少受援国负担；援助的目的是使受援国走上自力更生、经济独立发展的道路；援助项目力求投资少、见效快，使受援国增加收入；提供自己生产的质量最好的设备和物质，按国际市场议价，不合商定规格和质量的保证退换；提供技术援助时要保证受援国人员充分掌握这种技术；中国援助专家与受援国专家享受同等待遇，不许有任何特殊要求和享受。④ “五项立场”和“八项原则”奠定了中国对非洲政策的基础。客观地说，1949～1978年，中国对外政策在相当程度上受到国际政治局势的影响。⑤新中国成立以来，先后实施了联苏反美的“一边倒”（20世纪50年代）、“反帝反修”（20世纪60年代）与联美反苏“一条线”和“一大片”（20世纪70年代）的战略。⑥当时对非洲政策的基点是，中国应站在第三世界反殖、反帝、反修的第一线。⑦这种强调意识形态的取向实源于对中国不利的国际形势。西方的敌视政策迫使中国寻求较有利的外交空间来谋求自己的生存权利。 由于坚持外交政策与意识形态挂钩，中国对非洲外交曾陷入十分尴尬的境地。⑧在20世纪60年代，中国共产党与南非共产党和留尼汪共产党有过交往，后来因为中苏论战等原因，中国共产党中断了与他们的关系。1967～1969年，中国共产党与几内亚和佛得角非洲独立党的关系因他们的亲苏立场而一度疏远。刚果劳动党要求与中国共产党建立党际关系以加强合作，中方以对方不是共产党为由予以拒绝。莫桑比克解放阵线党与中国共产党早有联系，该党主席恩科莫曾5次访华，并提出建立党际关系，中国共产党因囿于意识形态的原因而拒绝。两党关系直到1981年才开始正常发展。20世纪70年代后期，与中国共产党交往的非洲政党只有埃塞俄比亚人民革命党和几个“共产主义小组”。1977年7月，当时的中国共产党领导人在会见莫桑比克代表团后指示中联部、外交部对与非洲国家政党交往问题进行调研；11月，两部联名上呈《关于黑非洲等地区一些民族主义国家执政党要求与我建立关系问题的请示》。12月，中央政治局批准了这一请示，决定开展对非洲执政党的工作。中联部从1978年开始接待非洲执政党来访。⑨这是中国共产党对外关系史上的突破，极大地推进了对非洲关系的发展。之所以说是突破，因为它代表着中国共产党对外交往开始从意识形态的束缚下解脱出来。 1978年以后，中国共产党与非洲政党的交往迅速发展。⑩1982年召开的中国共产党十二大确立了“独立自主、完全平等、相互尊重、互不干涉内部事务”的新型党际关系原则，并提出期望同更多的进步政党和组织建立联系。（11）中国与发展中国家的政党交往日益增多。（12）从1978～1990年，撒哈拉以南非洲国家各政党共派出230多批代表团访华，其中包括党主席、总书记、政治局委员等主要领导134人。同期，中国共产党派出56批党的代表团、组访问了撒哈拉以南非洲的39个国家的执政党。（13）截至2002年，中国共产党与撒哈拉以南非洲约40个国家的60多个政党建立联系，其中30多个是执政党。（14）仅在2005年，就有24个非洲政党访问中国，而中国共产党访问非洲代表团达19个。在政党交流活动中，双方议题广泛，涉及政治、经济、文化、军事等，中国共产党希望通过各种渠道服务于经济建设及和平发展的战略目标。中国和非洲国家的议会也开始互访。（15） 非洲的政党和政权可谓千差万别。（16）然而，中国共产党不再以意识形态划线，与非洲政党的交往大大加强并表现出以下特点。第一，交往原则不以意识形态划线。中国共产党不仅与意识形态相同的政党加强合作，也与其他政党发展关系。第二，交往对象不以执政党为限。中国共产党不仅与执政党加强联系，还与一些非执政党交往。第三，交往内容不限于政党政治。双方交往的内容不仅涉及政党政治，还致力于促进经贸合作和文化交流。（17） 由于摆脱了意识形态的束缚，中非政治关系在广泛的基础上逐步加深。中国领导人不断访问非洲，20世纪90年代以来更加频繁。1995年，当时的朱镕基副总理访问非洲掀起新的“非洲热”。江泽民同志曾4次访问非洲，并于1996年访问非统组织时提出对非洲关系“五点建议”：真诚友好，平等相待，互利互惠，加强磋商，面向未来。（18）胡锦涛同志已4次访问非洲，他于2004年访问非洲时重申了中国对非洲的基本政策：“坚持巩固和发展中非人民传统友谊，尊重非洲人民自主选择的发展道路；坚持在国际和地区事务中相互支持，共同维护发展中国家的正当权益；坚持相互尊重、相互学习、平等互利，继续向非洲国家提供力所能及的援助，谋求共同发展。”（19）政党关系的开拓促进了中非关系的发展，成为中非交往的重要内容。有的外国学者注意到：中国对非洲关系没有任何政治要求，只有一个原则：建交国不能与台湾保持关系。（20）   交流领域：从单一到多元   改革开放以来中国对非洲政策的第二个变化是从强调政治交往到多方面与多层次的交流。 从建国到1978年，中国对非洲政策的重点集中在三方面：支持非洲人民的民族独立运动；与非洲国家在国际舞台联合进行反帝、反殖和反霸斗争；援助非洲国家的经济建设。在政治上，中国全力支持非洲民族独立运动，除了从道义上声援非洲人民外，还给予物资和人力援助，并为非洲独立运动培养军事和政治人才。（21）非洲国家独立后，中国开始在反帝、反霸的斗争中争取非洲作为同盟军。（22）在援助非洲国家方面，由于受到为世界受压迫人民谋幸福、与超级大国对着干的意识形态和道德意境的驱使，中国对非洲援助是在承受了国内经济压力的条件下进行的。中非经济关系由两方面构成：中国对非洲贸易与对非洲的援助。中非贸易总额1977年才达到7.2亿美元。（23）1956～1977年，中国向36个非洲国家提供了超过24.76亿美元的经济援助，占中国对外援助总额（42.76亿美元）的58%.（24）20世纪70年代，苏联虽是非洲的第一大军火商，但对非洲的援助却远远落后于中国。当时中国对非洲援助达18亿美元，相当于苏联援助的2倍。（25） “文化大革命”结束后，中非关系的发展势头在短期内出现下降趋势，主要表现如下。第一，对非洲援助下滑。从表2可以看出，1976～1980年的年均援助数额为94万美元，但这一数额应主要为1976～1978年的援助数。（26）1982年，当时的中国领导人访问非洲后，援助有所增加。第二，贸易额下降。从表3可清楚看出这一点，中非贸易额从1980年后一直呈下降趋势（1982年除外），1986年才开始回升。第三，医疗队人数减少。表4表明：1979年和1980年中国没有向非洲派遣医疗队，在1978～1983年，驻始派医疗队国家的人数和医疗站点均最少。这一时期虽然短暂，但不容忽略。中国对非洲政策的变化有以下几个原因。首先，对非洲援助一直在国内经济十分困难的情况下进行。“文化大革命”结束后，中国百废待兴，国内建设需要资金；其次，经济建设急需外资和技术，加之中国与西方国家关系出现缓和，中国政府将很大一部分注意力转到与发达国家的沟通上；再次，与两个主要受援国（阿尔巴尼亚与越南）关系的恶化使中国认识到对外援助的局限性。当然，中国领导层交替使政策的连贯性也受到影响。（27）很明显，中非双方要建立持久的关系必须有新思路。 20世纪80年代初，中国处于战略思维的转变期。1982年9月召开的中国共产党“十二大”提出了“全面开创社会主义现代化建设的新局面”这一口号，并确定了独立自主的和平外交方针。中国对时代主题的认识实现了从“战争与革命”到“和平与发展”的转变，对外交与经济两者关系的认识实现了“经济为外交服务”到“外交为经济服务”的转变。（28）3个月后，中国政府总理访问非洲多国，并在此期间宣布了中国对非洲经济技术合作“四项原则”：平等互利、讲求实效、形式多样、共同发展。（29）“四项原则”是对前述“八项原则”的补充和发展。“八项原则”是关于援助非洲工作的，“四项原则”是针对经济技术合作，这是在不同时期针对不同情况提出的政策，具有互补作用；前者主要是约束中方，在实践中利弊各现；后者强调双向合作和共同发展，发挥各自优势因地制宜，以提高自力更生的能力。这无疑是对新形势的政策调适，从而构成了中非经济互利合作的整体原则，对非洲产生了重大影响，并受到国际社会的关注。（30） 为了使非洲国家外交官更加了解中国，1996～2004年，中国外交部还委托外交学院举办了9期英语和法语的“非洲外交官‘了解现代中国讲习班”，2001年和2004年举办了两期阿拉伯语研习班。1999～2003年，研习班邀请了一些非洲地区组织的代表参加：1999年为非统组织；2000年为中非国家经济共同体；2001年为东南非共同市场、东非共同体、西共体、非统组织和南部非洲发展共同体；2002年为中非国家经济共同体；2003年为南部非洲共同市场和南部非洲发展共同体。这一举措使中国与非洲地区组织的关系更为密切，也为开展经济合作设立了平台。为了使代表们全面了解中国，讲习班第一阶段讲授中国历史、文化、经济、社会、外交等方面内容，并参观名胜古迹和观看文艺节目；第二阶段组织访问2～4个城市，参观当地企业、农村及博物馆，并同当地人士座谈。这种活动使非洲代表直接感受中国改革带来的巨大变化。 20世纪80年代后期以来，中非关系全面发展。特别是中国关于“两个市场、两种资源”的战略部署使中非关系扩展到各个方面。目前，中国已与26个非洲国家签订了双边促进和保护投资协定，与8个非洲国家签订了避免双重征税协定，分别与41和46个非洲国家签有贸易协定、文化协定，中非双边多边合作机制逐步健全，合作方式日趋多元化。（31）从1991年起，中国外交部长每年正式出访的第一站总是非洲。中国与28个非洲国家建立了外交部间政治磋商机制。中非交流涵盖众多领域，如经贸合作的扩展、文教交流的扩大、医疗卫生援助的持续、（32）军事交流的加强、（33）民间交流的拓展，等等。其中，发展最快的是教育交流与经贸合作。 1.教育交流从20世纪50年代起，中非教育交流主要局限于接收留学生。从90年代起，教育交流已发展到多层次、多领域和多形式，主要表现在高层互访、互派留学生，中国派遣援助非洲的教师，人才培训，在非洲国家建立各种实验室等。（34）中国教育部代表团在90年代访问了近20个非洲国家；43个非洲国家向中国派遣了5669名留学生，中国也向10余个非洲国家派遣了100多名留学生；238名中国援助非洲的教师遍布30余个非洲国家。为了更有效地为非洲国家培养高层次人才，中国增加了非洲来华研究生比例。中国教育部自1998年始为非洲国家举办培训班。截至2003年底，中国在21个非洲国家实施了43期高教与科研项目，开设了具有中国特点又为非洲国家急需的学科及相关实验室21个。（35）2005年，中国教育部委托11所院校单位举办了12期培训班和研讨班，内容包括高教管理、远程教育和职业技术教育，来自41个亚非国家的教育官员、学者和技术人员参加了学习。（36） 为了更好地进行合作交流，中国教育部下属高校还成立了多个培训基地，如天津工程师范学院非洲职业教育研究中心着重为非洲培养中等专业技术人员，成功地与非洲国家开展职业技术教育合作；中国还向埃塞俄比亚派遣了87名职业教师。浙江师范大学非洲教育研究中心加强与非洲国家教育部门的合作，除进行汉语培训外，先后举办了“非洲高等教育管理研修班”、“非洲英语国家大学校长研修班”和“非洲法语国家大学校长研修班”等。东北师范大学和吉林大学对非洲教育官员进行教育管理和远程教育培训。中国农业大学、南京农业大学在培养农业技术人才、促进技术项目在非洲的推广方面取得了经验。天津中医学院等中医院校则先后为非洲培养了一批专业中医药技术人才。（37）目前，教育人才培训工作逐步形成一套“请进来，走出去，扬我长，重效益”的经验。（38）在2005年11月召开的首届北京“中非教育部长论坛”上，国务委员陈至立宣布了中国对非洲教育援助与合作交流的四项承诺：扩大中非留学生项目、举办各类学术研讨班、进行教育管理培训和在非洲进行中文教育。（39） 2.经贸合作1950年以来，中非贸易主要局限于国家间贸易。国家干预的成分使这种关系可以维持但缺乏活力。近年来，中非贸易出现一些新特点，其中之一是国营、民营和三资企业在“走出去”战略推动下走向非洲。民营企业发展迅速，有赶超国营企业的趋势。（40）中非贸易额从50年代的1000多万美元增至2000年的100多亿美元，2005年达397.4亿美元。中国与非洲的互补性可以从商品构成看出。2004年，中国出口非洲商品前四位分别是机电（41%）、纺织品（18%）、服装（11%）和高新技术产品（8%）；从非洲进口产品前四位分别为原油（64%）、铁矿砂（5%）、棉花（4%）、钢铁制品、钻石和原木（各占3%）。（41）中非经济合作还表现在投资、承包业务等方面，截至2004年底，经商务部核准和备案的中国在非洲投资的非金融类企业已达715家。（42）投资项目涉及贸易工商、资源开发、交通运输、农业及农产品开发等。（43）中国公司承包业务增长，建筑劳务输出增多。2004年，中国公司承包合同2721项，金额达6亿美元，占非洲的市场份额达14%.（44）2005年，中国企业在非洲新签承包劳务合同额86.1亿美元，完成营业额62.4亿美元。截至2005年底，中国在非洲承包工程和劳务合作累计合同额达412.1亿美元，完成营业额289.5亿美元，从事承包工程和劳务合作人员达8.2万人。（45）为了开发非洲市场，中国在非洲设立了11个“中国投资开发贸易促进中心”。中心遵循“服务是中心工作的宗旨，经营是中心发展的保障”的思路，正在形成独特的经营模式。中国还与35个非洲国家建立了经贸混（联）合委员会机制。（46） 中非经贸合作从单一方式发展到承包、劳务、投资与合资等方式，并呈现出5个变化：从单一的国家间贸易变为国家与民间贸易共举；从单一方式变为多元、多层次的合作方式；双边贸易额大大增加；从中国顺差开始变为非洲顺差；从带援助性质的经济合作变为互利双赢的经贸合作。中非关系以各种方式延伸到诸多领域，可以说，中非关系黄金期已经到来。这种转变也引起海外媒体的注意，“那种中非合作主要集中在国家与国家间合作、国际事务上的政治支持和经济援助的日子已一去不复返。”（47） 合作性质：从注重无偿援助到强调互利双赢 中国对非洲政策做出调整后，强调合作互利双赢。中国的援助方式也从单一的无偿援助变为政府优惠贴息贷款援助方式、援助项目合资合作方式和无偿援助等方式。诚然，中国对非洲政策有自己的战略意图，但其基本出发点是帮助非洲国家摆脱依附状态，巩固独立成果，促进非洲的经济和社会发展。这一点不容置疑。中非合作的实践清楚地表明了这一点。 中非合作性质的转变具体表现在援助方式的改变、发展经验的交流和经济利益的互惠等方面。 1.援助方式的改变1993年10月，在非洲发展东京国际会议上，非洲国家代表普遍要求援助国改变援助方式。他们提出，在发展生产的基础上增加外贸和吸引外来资金比政府间传统合作更有效。（48）这是对援助方式进行改革的要求，表达了受援国对传统援助理念的不满。20世纪80年代后期和90年代前期正是中国外贸及援外工作的改革期。中国的无偿援助对非洲发展起到一定作用，非洲国家也以其特有方式给予回报：恢复了中国在联合国的合法地位。用毛主席的话来说：“这是非洲黑人朋友把我们抬进去的。”（49）然而，实践说明，单靠无偿援助很难改变非洲贫困的现实。中国领导人也认识到，对于经济援助，根据历史经验，那种完全奉送的办法，对双方都不利。（50）因此，中国开始探讨对外贸体制和援外方式进行调整与改革。 1987年开始的外贸体制改革成效显著。（51）中国政府开始探讨其他形式的援助方式。1987年，因缺乏技术力量和管理经验，中国援建的多哥阿尼耶糖厂由中方公司派专家租赁经营。企业效益显著提高，受到多哥政府的赞扬。（52）这从而演变为一种新型援助方式——援外项目合作合资方式，并于1992年开始试行。1991年，马里政府宣布对中国援建的塞古纺织厂实行私有化，希望中国企业合资经营。经协商，马里政府将80%的股份转让给中国海外工程公司，该公司负责偿还马里所欠中国政府的债务，双方政府给合资企业以优惠。合资企业到1996年产值达76亿非洲法郎，取得了良好的经济效益。（53）中国的援助非洲项目还注意到对弱势群体的关顾，如援建项目包括苏丹职业培训中心（1989年）、布基纳法索儿童乐园（1991年）、毛里求斯老年人活动中心和喀麦隆残疾妇女宿舍（1999年）等。 中国政府贴息优惠贷款经过3年试点后于1995年下半年开始推行。（54）当时的国务院副总理朱镕基于1995年7～8月访问了东、南部非洲七国，李岚清副总理于同年10～11月访问了西非六国。这两次访问的重要目的之一是宣传中国新的援助方式。1996年底，中国同16个非洲国家签订优惠贷款框架协议。（55）新的援外方式逐渐为受援国所接受。2000年召开的中非合作论坛部长级会议开启了中非友好合作的新阶段。中国在论坛后续行动中表明了一个负责任的大国所为：承诺继续提供对非洲援助，减免非洲部分到期债务，帮助非洲国家开发人力资源，推动中国企业到非洲投资办厂。2002年6月底，中国与31个非洲国家签署了免债议定书，共免除债务156笔，约105亿元。（56）这样，无偿援助逐渐发展为政府贴息优惠贷款、援外项目合作合资和无偿援助等多种形式。 2.发展经验的交流举办研讨班（会）和培训班是中非合作互利双赢的另一重要举措。为了交流各自的发展经验，首届“中国—非洲经济管理官员研修班”于1998年8月3日开幕，共有来自12个非洲国家的22名学员参加，其目的在于“使学员了解中国并介绍各自国家的情况，相互交流，加深理解，增进中国与非洲国家的友谊和长期合作”。根据时任中国国家主席江泽民的提议，中国每年将举办两期这样的研修班。（57）2002年，中国专门为非洲举办了一期部长级经济官员研讨班。12个非洲国家的12位部长或部长代表出席，反响热烈。（58）以“中非经济改革和发展战略研讨会”为例，该研讨会邀请了16个非洲国家的22名经济或金融部门的官员和7名非洲发展银行的官员，以及34名非洲国家驻华使馆官员。中方代表共有16名，分别来自各部委。 在研讨会上发言的中方代表均为中国经济和金融部门的负责官员，他们向非洲同行介绍了各自部委经济改革的经验与教训。为了使非洲官员对中国有一个较全面的了解，研讨会不仅组织与会非洲代表游览了万里长城和故宫，还组织他们实地考察了减贫项目和上海浦东开发区。中国政府还与有关组织联合举办了各种类型的减贫经验交流研讨会，使非洲国家“在分享中国减贫经验的过程中找到适合他们自身国情的扶贫减贫策略”（59）。 发展经验交流的第二种类型是学习或提高技能或技术的培训班，其确定有两条原则：中国之所长和非洲之所需。中国在中非合作论坛第二届部长级会议上承诺，3年内力争为非洲培训1万名各类人才，并为此成立了“对外人力资源开发合作部际协调机制”。2004年，中国对非洲培训经费比上年增加了1倍多，2446名非洲学员来华接受培训，接收非洲留学生332名。2005年，中国为非洲培训各类人员3868名，培训内容涉及贸易投资、经济管理、网络通信、农业新技术等领域，培训对象包括政府官员和技术人员。（60）2005年9月，胡锦涛主席在联合国千年发展高级别筹资会议上宣布了中国支持发展中国家加快发展的五项举措，其中特别强调为发展中国家培养急需人才。为了更好地落实承诺，中国教育部于今年在云南召开了第四次对发展中国家教育援助人才培训工作经验交流研讨会。根据今年援外经费额度，教育部将实施9项人才培训项目，商务部拟委托20所院校和单位承办17个短期培训班和3个研究生班。（61）“授人以鱼不如授人以渔”，此成语贴切地概括了中国上述举措的目的。 3.经济利益的互惠中国在与非洲进行经贸合作时尽量考虑到非洲国家的利益，以实现互利互惠。在中非合作论坛第二届部长级会议上，中国宣布对最不发达国家部分输华商品给予免关税待遇。从2005年1月1日起，中国对28个最不发达非洲国家的190个税目的输华商品实施免关税政策。据中国海关统计，2005年1～11月，享受对非洲特惠进口的货物总值为3.4亿美元，同比增长96%，比同期中国从非洲的进口增幅高出60个百分点。这充分证明此项举措对促进非洲对华出口、推动中非贸易健康发展所起到的积极作用。（62）2005年4月，1.24万名非洲商人参加了第97届广交会，成交金额达17亿美元，分别比上届增长了68.2%和22.2%.2005年1～9月，30个非洲国家和地区与中国的贸易额超过1亿美元，9个国家超过10亿美元。（63） 2000年的中非贸易有两个特点。其一是贸易总额首次超过100亿美元（105.98亿美元）；其二是中国进口额超过出口额。当年的中国出口额为50.43亿美元，进口额为55.55亿美元。（64）这种情况表明：非洲对华贸易的增长速度已经加快。2004年，中非贸易额接近300亿美元（294.5928亿美元），进口额（156.4606亿美元）又一次超过出口额（138.1322亿美元）。（65）2005年，中非贸易额持续增长，进出口总额达397.4亿美元，同比增长34.9%，高于同期全国进出口增幅12个百分点；其中出口186.8亿美元，进口210.6亿美元。（66）在贸易额不断增长的同时，中国对非洲出口商品结构进一步优化，机电和高新技术产品出口迅速增长，占中国对非洲出口总额的一半以上。由于中国强调技术援助与经济援助的结合，这种结构不仅将在技术层面帮助非洲国家的发展，也为中非双方在借鉴发展经验、制定发展策略方面提供了交流的平台。这无疑是一种双赢的局面。 2006年6月，温家宝总理在访问埃及时重申了中国对非洲经贸关系的3个着力点：“第一，要积极扩大进口非洲的商品，中国将采取有力措施为非洲推介商品创造条件；第二，要把技术援助同经济援助与合作紧密结合起来，重在增强非洲自我发展能力；第三，大力帮助非洲培训技术人员和管理人员。”（67）这种宣示从根本上表现了中国对非洲政策强调互利双赢的和谐哲学：设身处地为对方着想以调动合作的积极性；将本国利益与他国利益相结合以保证合作的公正性；将暂时利益与长远利益相结合，以保证合作的持久性；通过增强对方自我发展能力以保持合作的可持续性。 当今，中国对非洲政策面临四大挑战或四大矛盾。第一，中国国家利益与在非洲的中国企业利益矛盾；第二，中国企业与非洲企业的矛盾；第三，中国在非洲的利益与西方大国在非洲既得利益的矛盾；第四，中国在非洲的能源战略与非洲可持续发展的矛盾。对这些矛盾的处理不仅与中非关系的健康发展有关，也与国际政治的既定机制和稳定发展有关，还关系到未来人类可持续发展的方向。中国只有正视并致力于妥善解决这些矛盾，才能向世界展示一个追求和平发展的负责任的大国形象。   注释： ①See Li Anshan ，"African Studies in China in the Twentieth Century：A Historiographical Survey"，African Studies Review ，48：1（April2005），pp.59-87. ②关于这次访问，参见陆庭恩：《中国与非洲首脑外交的范例——周恩来总理首次访问非洲》，载北京大学非洲研究中心编：《中国与非洲》，北京大学出版社2000年版，第1～18页。出于对共产主义的偏见和恐惧，并非所有的非洲人对周恩来的评价都是正面的。拉各斯《每日时报》（Daily Times ）形容他为“世界上最危险的人之一”。See Maritn Meredith ，The First Dance of Freedom，Harper Row，1984，p.177. ③参见《中华人民共和国外交大事记》，第二卷，世界知识出版社2001年版，第310～311页。 ④参见《人民日报》，1964年1月18日；黄镇：《把友谊之路铺向觉醒的非洲》，载《不尽的思念》，中央文献出版社1987年版，第364～373页。 ⑤有的学者将这一时期细分为1950～1960年和1960～1978年两个阶段。SeeDeborah Brautigam ，Chinese Aid and African Development ：Exporting GreenRevolution，Macmillan Press ，1998，pp.38-40. ⑥参见曲星：《中国外交50年》，江苏人民出版社2000年版，第375～376页；See Robert Ross ，ed.，China ，the United States ，and the SovietUnion ：Tripolarity and Policy Making in the Cold War ，New York，1993，pp.11-61. ⑦参见中国外交部、中国共产党中央文献研究室编：《毛泽东外交文选》，中央文献出版社／世界知识出版社1994年版，第403～413，416～420，463～467，490～492，497～502，526～528，587～588，600～601页。 ⑧参见龙向阳：《1966～1969年中国与非洲关系初探》，载北京大学非洲研究中心编：前引书，第72～86页；See B.Barnouin Yu Changgen，Chinese ForeignPolicy during the Cultural Revolution ，London，1998，pp.75-78. ⑨蒋光化：《访问外国政党纪实》，世界知识出版社1997年版，第191、451、667页；曲星：前引书，第450～451页；艾平：《中国共产党与撒哈拉以南非洲政党的交往》，载陈公元主编：《21世纪中非关系发展战略报告》，中国非洲问题研究会，2000年，第12～13页。 ⑩参见李力清：《中国与黑非洲政党交往的历史与现状》，载《西亚非洲》，2006年第3期，第16～19页。 （11）《人民日报》，1982年9月8日。 （12）2004年北京主办第三届亚洲政党国际会议。参见钟欣：《不以意识形态划线》，载《党建文汇》，2004年第9期。还可参见黄文登：《邓小平理论与中拉党际关系》，载《拉丁美洲研究》，1998年第6期。 （13）参见蒋光化：前引书，第670～671页。书中记载了他11次率团访问撒哈拉以南非洲的情况。 （14）参见李力清：前引文；《深化中非关系的有益尝试：记第五次非洲国家政党研讨考察活动》，载《当代世界》，2002年第6期，第18～19页；钟伟云：《当前黑非洲政党态势和中非政党间的交往》，载北京大学非洲研究中心编：前引书，第129～142页。 （15）参见曾建徽：《议会外交：交流与交锋——曾建徽与外国议员和政要的对话》（上），五洲传播出版社2006年版，第101～103，184～186页。 （16）大致有以社会主义为方向、以资本主义为方向、希望走非资本主义和非社会主义道路3种取向。参见蒋光化：前引书，第670页；Naomi Chazan，etal，Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa ，Lynne Rienner Publishers，1972，pp.140-151. （17）2000年原中国共产党北京市委书记贾庆林访问乌干达，促成咖啡贸易合作；原中国共产党山东省委书记吴官正（2001年）、中国共产党广东省委书记张德江（2004年）和中国共产党湖北省委书记俞正声（2005年）访问非洲时，随访的经贸团与非洲诸国家签订了多项合作协议。参见李力清：《中国与黑非洲政党交往的历史与现状》，第18页。 （18）参见《人民日报》，1996年5月14日。 （19）《人民日报》，2004年2月3日。 （20）See Brian Smith ，"Western concern at China's growing involvementin Africa"，Asian Tribune ，2006/4/10.http://www.asiantribune.com/showarticle.php ？id=3102 （21）参见蒋光化：前引书，第130，303～305，442～443，621～622页。中国在1955～1977年间共为非洲培养了2675名军事人才。See W.WeinsteinT.H.Henriksen ，ed.，Soviet and Chinese Aid to African Nations ，Praeger，1980，pp.102-111. （22）See Marina Ottaway，"Soviet Marxism and African Socialism ，"Journal of Modern African Studies（September 1978），pp.477-487. （23）《中国对外经济贸易年鉴（1984年）》，中国对外经贸出版社1984年版，第ⅴ—30页。 （24）Weinstein T.H.Henriksen ，op.cit.，p.117，p.121. （25）Naomi Chazan，et al ，op.cit.，p.410. （26）从1971年中国恢复在联合国的合法席位至1978年为对外援助急剧增长阶段。参见严益吾：《1989年我国的对外援助工作》，载《中国对外经济贸易年鉴（1990年）》，中国社会出版社1990年版，第55页。 （27）尽管如此，中国在1979～1983年建成的援外项目达181个，其中90%以上是在非洲国家。参见《1979-1983年我国援外建成项目情况》，载《中国对外经济贸易年鉴，（1984年）》，1984，Ⅳ－217～218页。 （28）参见曲星：前引书，第440～441页。 （29）参见《人民日报》，1983年1月15日。 （30）See L.C.Harris R.L.Worden ，ed.，China and the Third WorldChampion or Challenger？Croom Helm，1986，pp.100-119. （31）参见宗合：《中非友好合作与共同发展》，载《西亚非洲》，2005年第2期，第59页。 （32）See Drew Thompson ，"China's Soft Power in Africa ：From the'BeijingConsensus'to Health Diplomacy"，China Brief ，A Journal of Analysis andInformation （Jamestown Foundation），5：21（October 13，2003）；徐春富：《架筑友谊桥梁的中国白衣天使——中国援助非洲医疗队工作见闻》，载《西亚非洲》，2003年第5期，第73～75页。 （33）参见詹世明：《国防大学外训系非洲学员来西亚非洲所座谈》，载《西亚非洲》，2004年第3期，第23页。 （34）See Sandra Gillespie，South-South Transfer：A Study of Sino-AfricanExchanges ，Routledge ，2001. （35）《中非教育合作与交流》编写组：《中国与非洲国家教育合作与交流》，北京大学出版社2005年版，第3～5页；张秀琴等：《中国和非洲国家的教育交流与合作》，载《西亚非洲》，2004年第3期。 （36）参见中国教育部国际合作与交流司：《第四次对发展中国家教育援助人才培训工作经验交流研讨会会议纪要》，2006年4月（会议文件）。 （37）See"Typical Cases Introduction about China-Africa Cooperationin Education"，Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges ，Ministry of Education ，P.R.China ，2005-11-21.（会议文件） （38）参见《第四次对发展中国家教育援助人才培训工作经验交流研讨会工作材料》，昆明，2006年3月，第2页（会议文件）。 （39）See Chen Zhili，"Speech at the China-Africa Education MinistersForum"，November 27，2005，p.5.（会议文件） （40）据统计，2005年1～9月，国营、民营和三资企业对非洲的出口额分别为55.9亿美元、51.1亿美元和28.6亿美元，同比增幅分别为23%、59.6%和52.7%.参见周建青：《中非经贸合作稳步发展——2005年中非经贸合作情况及2006年展望》，载《西亚非洲》，2006年第1期，第16页。 （41）中国商务部西亚非洲司协调处：《2004年中国与非洲国家的经济贸易关系》，载《中国商务年鉴（2005年）》，中国商务出版社2005年版，第182～183页。 （42）中国商务部西亚非洲司协调处：前引文，第183页。 （43）中国商务部西亚非洲司：《2005年中非经贸合作成绩斐然》，摘自中国商务部网站，2006年1月26日。 （44）《中国商务年鉴（2005年）》，中国商务出版社2005年版，第166页。 （45）中国商务部西亚非洲司：前引文。 （46）周建青：前引文，载《西亚非洲》，2006年第1期，第16页。 （47）Mahamat Adam，"Africa starting to rise in partnership with China"，China Daily （North American Edition，N.Y ），January 13，2006，p.4. （48）参见张炽鑫：《贯彻援外新方针，开拓援外新局面》，载《中国对外经济贸易年鉴（1994～1995年）》，中国社会出版社1994年版，第62页。 （49）翁明：《临行点将——“乔老爷”首次率团赴联大》，载符浩、李同成主编：《经天纬地——外交官在联合国》，中国华侨出版社1995年版，第9页。 （50）中国共产党中央文献研究室编：《三中全会以来重要文献选编》（下），人民出版社1982年版，第1127～1128页。 （51）参见吴仪：《中国外贸体制改革的成效和方向》，载《国际贸易》，1991年第12期。 （52）严益吾：前引文，载前引书。 （53）何晓卫：《继续推行援外方式改革，严格履行对外援助协议》，载《中国对外经济贸易年鉴，（1997～1998年）》，中国经济出版社／经济导报社，1997年版，第75页。 （54）政府贴息优惠贷款是指由我国银行提供的具有政府优惠贷款，其利率与银行通常利率之间的利息差额由国家援外费补贴。贴息优惠贷款主要用于为发展中国家建设有经济效益的生产性项目，也可用于受援国政府能保证偿还贷款的基础设施项目。 （55）何晓卫：前引文，第75页。 （56）邱德亚：《2002年中国对外援助情况》，载《中国对外经济贸易年鉴（2003年）》，对外经贸出版社2003年版，第91页。 （57）参见《人民日报》，1998年8月4日。 （58）邱德亚：前引文，载前引书，第91页。 （59）《人民日报》，2004年9月24日。 （60）中国商务部西亚非洲司：前引文。 （61）中国教育部国际合作与交流司：前引文。 （62）中国商务部西亚非洲司：前引文。 （63）周建青：前引文。 （64）《中国对外经济贸易年鉴（2001年）》，对外经贸出版社2001年版，第503页。 （65）《中国对外经济统计年鉴（2005年）》，中国统计出版社2005年版，第83页。 （66）中国商务部西亚非洲司：前引文。 （67）《人民日报》，2006年6月19日。

[坦]梅威斯加·巴热古（Mwesiga Baregu），坦桑尼亚达累斯萨拉姆大学政治学系教授

日本的大国外交在其非洲政策上有明显的反映，日本对非援助政策的目的就在于获得非洲的资源以维持其作为经济大国的基础和争取非洲国家支持日本“入常”以成为政治大国。而随着非洲逐渐成为大国角逐的舞台，在大国化之路不断迈进的中日两国如何在这个舞台上谋求合作也必然引起人们的关注。   一、战后日本的大国外交   战后日本的大国外交是它实现国家大国化的必然结果，是以它固有的大国意识为背景的，这种意识在外交战略上的表现就是它的大国主义外交路线，这条路线是战后日本大国外交的基本路线。具体地说，战后日本的大国化过程包括它与相关大国实现关系正常化展开大国外交和作为大国为世界作贡献两个方面的问题。 1、日本的大国化与大国外交 谈日本的大国外交必须从其固有的大国意识说起。大国意识是我们观察现代日本的一个重要角度，因为至少自明治维新以后，日本由一个东亚小国逐渐实现现代化并最后成为军事大国的过程，主要表现了这种意识的实践过程；而第二次世界大战后，日本从战败的废墟上恢复了经济实力并成为经济大国，进而企图成为政治大国的事实又再次表现了这种意识的生命力。 所谓大国意识就是指一国凭借自己的综合国力，试图在国际社会发挥影响力的优越感和自觉意识。这种意识从追求国家的大国目标的意义上看，也可以称之为大国志向，而从作为大国的优越感和自觉意识的意义上看，则可以称之为大国意识。回顾近代以来日本国家目标的制定和实践过程，可以说是一个在大国意识支配下实现大国化的过程。 另外，大国意识在外交战略上的表现主要是它们的大国主义路线。当然，这里谈它的大国主义并不是说日本没有小国主义思潮，石桥湛三的小日本主义便是这种思潮的表现，但这种思潮在战前从来没有占据过主导地位。就战后而言，日本的小国主义路线除了左翼主张的拥护和平宪法，实行中立主义之外，也包括战后初期韬光养晦，追随美国的吉田主义路线。然而，虽然五、六十年代，小国主义路线影响着日本的主流思想，但是，这条路线在六十年代中期随着日本经济实力的不断增强，便开始逐渐被大国主义路线所取代。 本文所说的大国主义路线就是在大国意识支配下实现日本大国化的路线，概括起来说，战后日本的大国化包括它为摆脱“战后状态”与相关大国实现关系正常化展开大国外交和作为大国为世界作贡献两个方面的问题。 关于大国外交方面，即使在五十年代小国主义占主导地位的时期，日本政府还是为自己成为正常国家而努力过，如关于战后最大的“悬案”中日关系正常化问题，主张向美一边倒的吉田茂也做过努力。1954年底，他访问欧洲企图游说欧洲各国去说服美国，同意日本恢复与中国大陆的关系，但是，因为当时时机尚未成熟，结果吉田茂无功而归；到了1956年，吉田茂的后任鸠山一郎解决了与苏联关系正常化的问题；1960年，岸信介通过日美安保条约的改定实现了日美关系对等化；随后，在七十年代初，佐藤内阁收回了冲绳的行政权；1972年田中角荣实现了中日邦交正常化，至此，日本终于基本上解决了与相关大国的战后处理问题，为今后展开大国外交奠定了基础。 2、国际贡献与大国战略 关于日本作为大国为世界作贡献的问题，其实就是日本在国际社会发出声音，向国际社会展示自己实力的问题，它是日本大国化的重要方面。战后日本从专心恢复经济到提出综合性的大国战略思考，经历了由注重地区经济利益向关注国际贡献的转变过程。 本文说的注重地区经济利益是指上世纪七十年代之前日本提出的外交政策三原则和福田主义。所谓外交政策三原则是指1957年岸信介在日本成为联合国会员国以后提出的外交基本方针，包括“以联合国为中心”、“与自由主义各国协调”和“坚持作为亚洲国家一员的立场”。概括地说就是在追随美国的前提下，以联合国为框架，把亚洲、主要是东南亚的资源和市场作为日本发展的基础。福田主义则是在日本的经济进出引起东南亚各国不满的背景下，1978年福田赳夫访问东南亚时提出的外交政策，其内容包括“日本不做军事大国”、“与东南亚国家构筑心心相印关系”和“为东南亚的和平与繁荣作贡献”。 不过，外交政策三原则与福田主义还不能说是日本外交的综合战略，因为尽管其中也表现了日本在利用联合国等国际机制的意愿，但是对美追随仍然是它外交的基本方针，这个时期日本的大国意识还主要表现为以援助的名义获取发展中国家，如东南亚的资源和市场，它的政策的经济色彩还比较浓厚，成为联合国安理会常任理事国，进而发挥政治作用对世界作贡献的志向还没表现出来。 日本从战略上关注国际贡献还是八十年代中期才开始的。这时，原来日本前首相福田赳夫所承诺的不做军事大国原则被中曾根补充解释为要做政治大国的志向。特别是在九十年代冷战结束以后，日本对一向以“支票外交”为主的对外援助政策的理解也发生了变化，更加注重从作为一个大国而分担国际责任的角度来诠释自己的对外援助政策，特别是“入常”的愿望也越来越强烈。 进入21世纪以后，安倍提出了“价值观外交”的理念，这个理念颇有大国主义外交战略的色彩，它是一个包括“自由与繁荣之弧”和“日美印澳”四国同盟意图在内的战略构想。尽管它是一个具有强烈的冷战意识形态色彩的战略，既没有注意到中国和非洲的作用，也无助于日本实现“入常”的愿望，尤其是它的“日美印澳”同盟构想因为没有得到美、印、澳三国的赞成，所以不能构成日本开展大国外交的有效框架。但是，“价值观外交”毕竟是日本自战后以来从世界战略的角度综合考虑其外交理念的第一次尝试，特别是“自由与繁荣之弧”为日本的对外援助提供了理念根据。 到了福田内阁，虽然不再提价值观问题和“自由与繁荣之弧”，但是，大国外交志向却一点没有降低，只不过福田大国外交的着眼点在于横跨太平洋的亚太地区，同时对非洲也给予了特别的关注而已。   二、大国外交与日本对非洲政策的变化过程   如上所述，日本的大国化就是指它实现与相关大国的正常化推行大国外交和作为大国为世界作贡献的过程，其实，在日本解决了与相关大国的关系正常化之后，在全球性问题上发挥大国作用就成了他们外交关心的焦点，而非洲的发展问题便自然成了日本推行大国外交和为国际作贡献的重点地区。概括起来，日本对非洲的关注经过了冷战期间的低调时期、冷战结束后的积极时期和进入新世纪后的全面重视时期。 1、冷战期间的低调对非洲政策 冷战期间，日本对非洲一直没有表现出较大的兴趣，它的政策主要是在美苏冷战的框架下有限展开的。 非洲大部分国家虽然于上世纪六十年代获得了独立，但是，经济上却不能自立。所谓非洲问题主要表现为贫困问题，特别是撒哈拉以南的地区，贫困人口不断增加，那里人均收入不足1美元的贫困人口是世界平均数字的两倍，所以解决非洲的贫困问题是一个世界性的课题。 然而，就日本来说，冷战期间它对非洲的认识并没有重视到这个层面。尽管战前的大日本帝国对欧洲列强的殖民地非洲一直采取敬而远之，或者说是鞭长莫及的态度，使得它没有在非洲留下殖民统治的恶名。但是，在冷战的背景下，非洲注定要成为美苏两个集团争夺的对象，日本作为西方阵营的一员，其非洲政策也就不能不带上强烈的冷战色彩。 当时，日本对非洲外交的着眼点不仅不在于贫困问题，也不在于反对殖民主义、反对人种差别和民族自决方面，而是注重阻止苏联的渗透和扩张，顺便逐步扩大自己在非洲的经济影响力以确保获得资源和市场，外交的目标也只是加强与那些亲西方和不结盟国家的关系。 在20世纪60年代，非洲独立运动取得巨大成功之后，日本开始与独立的非洲国家建立外交关系，进而展开通商、贸易往来，还通过民间团体的交流在发展经济、实行援助和反对殖民主义等方面与非洲国家进行了广泛的对话。但是，由于日本社会向来对非洲的关心度不够，所以，整个六十年代，日本对非洲的出口除了南非一度还能占到出口额的10％之外，其它国家所占的比例一直比较低。 日本开始认真关注非洲问题是到了八十年代以后，特别是中曾根康弘提出要当政治大国之后，它才开始进一步加强了对非洲的援助。尽管如此，大多数日本人对非洲的兴趣和热情还是很有限的。 2、冷战结束后的积极政策 日本真正以大国的姿态开展对非洲外交还是进入九十年代以后。冷战的结束标志着国际形势发生变化，特别是围绕非洲的冷战结构发生了变化，西方各国都在加紧与非洲接触，“非洲问题”也逐渐成了G8峰会的主要议题，欧美各国纷纷解囊相助。但是，因为这时欧美已经显现了筋疲力尽，在援助非洲方面略感力不从心，所以它们更期待日本增加援助，并认真对待非洲的贫困问题，这便给日本政府改变过去低调的消极政策，实行大国外交提供了机会。“非洲发展会议”便是在这种背景下召开的。 冷战的结束确实给日本在非洲树立大国形象提供了一个历史机遇，日本表现出了积极的姿势，逐渐成了援助非洲的主角。特别是日本积极回应国际社会的要求，与联合国有关机构合作，于1993年召开了首次“非洲发展会议”（Tokyo International Conference on African Development,TICAD），号召全世界帮助非洲谋求发展。1998年和2003年，又分别召开了第二次和第三次会议，先后发表了“东京行动计划”和“TICAD10周年宣言”。 “非洲发展会议”所涉及的领域是广泛的，特别是第二、三次会议，主要强调了减少非洲贫困和世界经济的统合，特别对教育、医疗、人口、贫困等社会发展领域以及工农业、外债等涉及经济发展的领域给予了相当的重视。另外，会议还着重强调了非洲的良政、纷争预防、纷争结束后的发展等三个领域的问题，并提出了具体数值目标和政策行动方案。 为了落实上述理念，2001年和2004年又分别在东京召开了TICAD部长级会议和“亚非贸易投资会议”，提出“实现和平”、“以人为本的开发”和“通过经济发展实现消除贫困目的”的三根支柱，日本还提出了重视“人的安全保障”概念。 日本的对非洲政策是由外务省直接管理的。外务省主导的日本对非洲的援助主要是通过NGO和ODA两个轮子的同时运转来实现的，即所谓“二元外交”。特别是日本通过NGO进行的“草根援助”在非洲获得了较高的评价。具体做法是日本外务省对于星罗棋布的NGO组织在政策和宣传方面给以指导，甚至委托NGO“承包”援助项目。NGO组织也通过国际会议、各种研讨会、甚至直接沟通与外务省保持着密切关系。 总体来说，冷战结束以后，日本对非洲的援助基本上是积极的，如1998年第二次会议后，日本便提供了900亿日元援助。尽管后来一度有所减少，如2003年的三次会议后，只提供了10亿美元援助。但日本基本上还是非常重视对非洲的援助的。如2005年4月，日本决定用3年时间将对非洲的援助增加一倍。日本对非援助的大部分是免除债务和日元贷款，其中无偿援助所占比例比较少。 由日本牵头召开的“非洲发展会议”，其实是由日本政府与联合国非洲特别调查室（OSAA）、联合国发展计划署（UNDP）、非洲全球联盟（GCA）以及世界银行共同召开的以非洲发展为主题的国际会议。这种由西方大国倡议发起的“非洲发展会议”，尽管强调了冷战以后国际社会应该对非洲提供积极支援，也提到亚洲的经验和非洲的开发的可借鉴性，甚至进而提出了推进南南合作问题，但同时，因为冷战结束后不久，非洲问题的解决也未能马上摆脱意识形态的影响。比如，在援助方面，它们提出援助到什么程度要看非洲的努力程度，其所指是非洲在民主化和良政方面努力的程度，也就是说，日本等西方国家的对非援助是有政治条件的。如第一次非洲发展会议就因为苏丹是伊斯兰原教旨主义政权而拒绝了苏丹的参加。 对此，非洲国家是怀有不满情绪的，它们需要的是及时而真心实意的援助，而不是附加政治条件的援助。一位非洲外交官就指出：现在需要一个新的会议框架，一个能够真正探讨问题的框架，非洲发展会议不是谈话节目，不能只靠嘴上说。驻东京的非洲大使组成的“非洲外交团”在给日本外交省的请愿书中也提到：我们不得不对非洲发展会议提出一些疑问，这个会议到底能够给我们非洲带来什么？ 尽管如此，日本在援助理念方面基本还是与西方国家看齐的。日本1993年《外交青书》就指出：“日美欧先进民主主义国家拥有自由、民主主义和市场经济等共同的价值观，还拥有占世界GDP70％的财富和世界最先进的技术”，日本要帮助非洲国家举办选举，推动民主进程，以促进非洲地区的和平。 3、福田内阁的对非洲政策 进入21世纪以后，日本开始全面重视非洲问题，特别是福田内阁因循战后日本外交的基本目的，即继续努力实现日本的大国化。当然，福田外交与他的前任比还有务实的一面，特别是他的非洲政策框架既不同于冷战期间的低调特点，也不同于冷战结束后的意识形态特点，相反，他是以淡化意识形态，实现日本“和平与合作国家”目的以及与发展中国家“自立与共生”为理念的。 关于福田的“和平与合作国家”目标，可以从福田与安倍外交的比较中加以理解。比如，从福田与安倍在推行日本大国外交时侧重点的不同，可以看出，福田既没有把日本大国外交的主要手段，即对外援助的重点放在“自由与繁荣之弧”上，也没有把“日美印澳”构想作为日本实现大国外交的基本目标。福田强调发展的前提是和平与合作，他认为“和平与合作”是日本外交的基础。 具体地说，就是福田提出的外交政策理念是把“和平与合作国家”作为日本大国化的目标，把非洲作为对外援助的重要地区，倡导亚洲太平洋国家把30年来的发展经验和力量在非洲的发展过程中发挥作用。可见，福田的外交是务实的，没有把意识形态问题放在首要位置。 关于“自立与共生”，意思是说，日本的援助哲学是“授之于鱼不如授之于渔”。用日本外相高村正彦的话说，就是如果被援助国自己不想发展的话，那么无论怎样支援，100年后也还是要依赖支援。而如果援助国对自助努力的国家进行帮助，那么15到20年后，接受支援的国家也可以变成支援别国的国家。所以，日本主张对非援助主要是援助非洲在自立方面的努力。 2008 年5月在横滨召开的“非洲发展会议”是福田内阁展示非洲政策的重要舞台，会上日本提出了加速非洲经济发展的问题，表明了日本对非援助政策的主要内容，包括基础设施建设、以政府开发援助带动投资、农业支援等。 另外，在日本此次提出的对非洲援助计划中，除了促进该地区的和平以外，还特别提出了防止该地区环境进一步恶化的主张。 另外，“人的安全保障”也是日本对非洲援助的新理念之一，从这个角度出发，日本打出了改善“医疗保健”、清洁的水供应和教育三张牌。比如，对于“医疗保障”问题，日本希望非洲能成为“健康的非洲，” 福田说：“以非洲为中心改善保健状况，日本应该在国际保健领域进行合作” 但是，日本主张首先要非洲国家自己努力改善保健状况，日本要在此基础上提供必要的援助，为此，日本还设立了野口英世非洲奖 。   三、非援助政策的深层原因   日本选择非洲作为其推行大国外交和作为大国为国际作贡献的舞台，是有着深层战略考量的。作为一个资源极度贫乏的国家，日本要想维持其经济强国地位，持续不断的资源供给是必不可少的；而它要“入常”成为政治大国，必要的“选票”也是不可或缺的。非洲在这两个方面都占有着极其重要的位置。 1、对非援助与资源获得 日本外相高村正彦在一次记者会上说：“日本不是为了获得资源才召开非洲发展会议的，日本与非洲加强广泛的经济关系是为了对非洲的发展作出贡献”。高村说得没错，“对非洲的发展作出贡献”的确是日本为国际作贡献的重要一环，是它实现大国化的重要步骤。 但是，非洲的资源显然是日本维持大国地位不可缺少的经济基础，说日本“不是为了获得资源”未免显得不太诚实。也许高村注意到了这一点，所以，他接着解释道：“不能完全否认资源的获得，但是这绝不是唯一的目的。日本政府并不追求眼前利益，而是从人道的观点出发作为一个负责任的国家对非洲的发展做出自己的努力” 。虽然有点闪烁其词，但是，他还是承认了日本对非洲丰富资源的浓厚兴趣。 不管高村如何解释，在援助的背后，获得资源都是日本一个不可否认的动机。日本尤其需要非洲的矿物质，随着当今世界性资源价格的高涨，保障能源和贵金属的稳定供应对日本至关重要。 本来，对非洲的援助是存在偿还能力问题的，比如，巴黎俱乐部（主要债权国会议）就因为偿还能力低曾停止了对非洲一些国家的贷款。然而，非洲蕴藏的资源所散发的巨大魅力对日本来说是难以抵挡的。尽管非洲存在偿还能力问题，日本还是于2007年10月20日确立了对非洲开展资源外交的方针。日本经济产业省的目的很明确，就是“希望通过日元贷款来帮助获得资源”。 如今，日本已经开始讨论向拥有丰富的石油和天然气资源的安哥拉提供日元贷款，因为安哥拉的原油日产量已经达到140万桶，随着石油收入的增加，其经济也开始步入正轨，偿还能力逐步恢复。 特别是自2007年1月，安哥拉加盟OPEC以后，它作为产油国的地位便逐渐上升，国际资本也开始对这里进行投资。除了安哥拉，日本还考虑恢复对拥有丰富镍资源的马达加斯加提供日元贷款，现在产镍国马达加斯加和产铜国赞比亚都已经在日本恢复贷款的名单上。另外，日本还对肯尼亚的蒙巴萨港扩建提供了约270亿日元贷款，因为这个港口建成后，对于日本从肯尼亚及其周边国家获得资源有重要意义。 由上可见，非洲的资源除了石油以外，像镍这种稀有金属也是吸引日本的重要资源。提到稀有金属，众所周知，它是现代高科技产业的重要原料，如手机的液晶显示屏里含铟，电池里含钴，主板中含钯，天线中含鎵，可以说，手机就是一个稀有金属的集成块。再如，稀土类元素也是稀有金属的一种，是31种稀有金属中17种元素的总称，它除了用于硬盘的驱动装置等电脑零件以外，还用于等离子电视及混合动力汽车的蓄电池中，可以说没有稀土类元素就没有日本的现代高科技产业；另外，铂也就是白金被用作汽车排气的净化触媒，如果没有铂，日美欧推行的汽车尾气排放标准根本无法实现。 总之，没有了稀有金属，手机、电脑、混合动力汽车等高科技技术产业就得停产， 可想而知，对于高度发达的日本高科技产业来说，非洲的稀有金属资源是多么的重要。所以，日本资源外交的目的地重点放在资源丰富的非洲，想用经济援助的手段强化与非洲的关系，实现其作为大国为世界作贡献的目的，其动机也就不难理解了。 2、对非援助中的“入常”问题 自从八十年代中期，尤其是冷战结束以后，日本要成为联合国安理会常任理事国的愿望越来越强烈，因为，“入常”是它成为政治大国的一个重要指标，也是它作为一个大国对世界作贡献的重要平台。然而，“入常”的门槛还是很高的，因为它涉及到联合国宪章的修改和联合国机制的改革，除了五大常任理事国的赞成之外还要联合国190个会员国中的三分之二，即至少128的国家的赞成。为此，非洲国家的投票支持显得尤为重要。 日本早就认识到非洲53个国家在日本“入常”问题上的重要性，2001年日本首相森喜朗就访问南非、肯尼亚和尼日利亚三个非洲国家，这是有史以来日本在职首相第一次对非洲国家的访问。森喜朗的目的显然是希望在日后日本在联合国安理会改革问题上，也就是在日本成为安理会常任理事国问题上能得到非洲国家的支持。 2005年日本爱知万国博览会期间，日本动员非洲29个国家出展，还免费为他们提供了食宿和路费，这样，29个国家的首脑都出席了这次博览会。日本的目的显然在于希望非洲国家在日本的“入常”问题上能够给予支持。 自从2005年冲击“入常”失败以后，日本政府决定重点攻克非洲这个“票田”，今年年初，外务省政务官中山泰秀陪同日本政府特使森喜朗参加在埃塞俄比亚举行的第10次非盟会议（AU），这是日本首次出席非盟首脑会议。当时，中山政务官直接就日本高层参加非洲发展会议和日本“入常”向非洲国家提出了希望。在今年5月的横滨非洲发展会议上，福田说，今后五年内向非洲提供40亿美元借款。显然这是在紧张的财政状况下，日本为了“入常”不得不对非洲进行的感情投资。另外，福田还在会上专门与非盟有关联合国改革问题的首脑机关“十国委员会”进行了协商， 该委员会由肯尼亚、乌干达和塞内加尔等国组成。 虽然日本和非洲在增加常任理事国与非常任理事国问题上意见是一致的，但是，非洲在这个问题上采取了一致的政策，提出了自己的方针，他们要求“拥有否决权的常任理事国”。所以日非之间还是有分歧的，日本很难获得非洲国家的支持。以2005年联大会议为例，日本联合德国、印度和巴西以“四国捆绑”的方式企图扣开常任理事国的大门，并争取到了近100个国家的赞成，如果再有30个左右的国家赞成，“四国捆绑”案就有可能获得突破性进展。但是，对于日本的努力，除了常任理事国中美国和中国反对之外，日本也没能获得拥有53个选票的非洲国家的支持。特别是在今年的横滨会议上，福田与非洲40个国家首脑分别举行各自15分钟的“马拉松会谈”，但令日本遗憾的是只有坦桑尼亚总统表示了“日本有资格成为常任理事国”，其他国家都没有明确表态。 日本之所以不能获得非洲国家的支持，原因之一至少在于日本对非洲的态度一直是居高临下的。另外，日本的对非援助一直在西方援助框架内进行也是一个重要原因。比如，上述在援助方面附加政治的条件，就让非洲人很不舒服。所以，尽管日本人认为自己分担着联合国经费的20%，仅次于美国的22%，但是，在“入常”问题上仍然不能得到非洲的支持。 看来非洲在某种意义上已经成了决定日本大国化的重要因素之一。   四、日本的对非政策与中日关系   日本在非洲政策上表现的积极姿势，无论在资源还是“入常”问题上都与中国的非洲政策有关，中日两国在非洲问题上存在着竞争与合作的两方面因素。面对世界各大国对非洲表现出来的浓厚兴趣，非洲已经成了国际竞争的重要舞台，在此背景下中日两国能否找到利益的交汇点是考验中日战略互惠关系的试金石。 1、中日围绕非洲问题的竞争侧面 日本早已意识到了中国在非洲的影响力，注意到在援助领域，中国对外援助的44%都投入到了非洲，总额高达550亿日元；根据2006年的统计，中国对非洲援助总额达到117亿美元。中国的援助给非洲经济增长提供了极大帮助。中国尤其是在政府形象工程方面的对非洲援助使日本相形见绌。2007年8月9日，莱索托外长对日本外相麻生太郎说：中国在我们的国会议事堂，国际会议场馆建设以及军队训练等方面给予了许多帮助，为莱索托发展作出了巨大贡献，相比之下，日本在这方面远不及中国。 另外，在增进与非洲国家交流方面中国也远比日本做得好，中国国家主席、总理、外交部长频繁访问非洲，仅国家主席胡锦涛就对非洲许多国家进行过友好访问。与之相比，日本除了2001年森喜朗访问非洲和2006年小泉访问非洲之外，再无政府首脑访非。2007年11月中旬，日本经济产业大臣访问了博茨瓦纳，但就是这种部长级政府官员对非洲的访问也可以说是寥寥无几。 2006年11月中国邀请非洲48国领导人举行了中非合作论坛，展开了积极的非洲外交。日本人把中国召开这次会议的目的解读为通过提供“巨额经济援助”来逐步获取资源。日本人认为，面对早就在世界各地展开大手笔资源外交的中国，自己已经落后得太多了，应该奋起直追。 其实，中国在非洲的积极姿势，并不像日本人理解的那样只为获得资源。比如，在维和方面，中国已向非洲派出了1000多人的维和部队参与维和任务，而日本的自卫队至今没有参与这样的活动。目前，日本正在筹划如何在维和领域参与非洲的事务。 面对中国在非洲的相对优势，日本人感觉到自己对非洲影响力的低下，日本外务省担心，中国在非洲的影响力进一步加强，日本在进入联合国安理会常任理事国等国际事务中的劣势就将越来越明显。日本意识到，如果不扭转这种态势，要想获得非洲国家对日本“入常”的支持是很难的。日本现在开始进一步强化与非洲国家的外交和经济关系，其目的之一就在于抗衡中国，拉拢非洲的“选票”。为此，日本决定进一步通过政府开发援助来支持非洲发展，并于今年5月横滨“非洲开发会议”结束以后，发表了《横滨宣言》，对关于援助非洲发展的项目加以确认。 除了为“入常”争取选票以外，日本在获取非洲资源方面对中国的竞争意识也十分强烈。所谓非洲的资源，主要是指上面提到的石油和稀有金属。特别是稀有金属，近年来，由于高科技产业的不断发展，其需求量在全球范围内不断上升，价格也就不断上涨，仅近三年的时间里就上涨了5倍。稀有金属在日本被称为“产业竞争力的源泉”，是其势在必得的资源。然而，这种资源的分布除了非洲，主要在中国、南非和澳大利亚，而且产量的90%在中国。所以，日本人认为中国不仅凭借产量操控着稀有金属的价格，而且还通过巨额经济援助从非洲获取这种资源，日本人认为中国的行动无疑会造成对稀有金属的全球性垄断。 当前，日本面临着寻找稀有金属便宜卖家的任务，它意识到如果日本不能摆脱对中国的依赖，日本就无法在获取非洲资源方面占有一席之地，日本的高科技产业就会被中国掐住命门。所以，中日两国在非洲出现激烈竞争是不可避免的。 2、中日关于非洲问题合作的可能性 中日两国在非洲的竞争态势，原因在于非洲素有“世界资源库”之称，占有全球总量10%的原油储藏，并已发现了铝矾土、铬铁、钴、金刚石、黄金等多种矿产资源。尽管如上所述，日本在非洲的影响一直不敌中国，但是，近年来日本开始不断派政府高官访问非洲，寻找出路。再加上不但中国，而且澳大利亚和加拿大也已经领先一步进入了非洲，非洲势必成为世界寻找稀有金属新竞技场，围绕非洲资源的大国外交会越来越复杂。 另外，非洲还具有战略和安全价值，主要表现在反恐、防止核扩散以及打击各种各样的走私活动上，其中以临近中东的东非之角最为突出。因此，围绕非洲大陆的国际斗争更显得错综复杂。事实上，除中日两国之外，美国、欧盟甚至印度都开始追求起这个“黑美人”阿非利加。尤其是2006年中国召开了中非合作会议以后，中国同非洲的经贸往来和政治关系达到高潮，引起了其它大国的密切关注，围绕非洲的战略竞争也变得越来越明显。 具体地说，欧盟与2007年终于开成了第二届欧非会议，西方媒体已经明确表示，召开这次欧非会议的目的，就是要“阻止中国对非洲的攻势”；与重视传统关系的欧洲相比，美国则从另外的角度接近非洲，于2007年创建了非洲军和非洲司令部，其目的除了“利用军事手段为美国企业获取石油利益保驾护航” 之外，在军事战略上先占有有利地位也是其长远目标；印度于2008年召开了印非会议，显然为中国对印度洋和非洲海岸的积极态势感到担忧，因为新德里长期以来都将非洲看作它的战略后院。 可见，围绕非洲的大国角逐日益明显，中日两国的对立不过是大国竞争的一部分而已。日本认为是中国阻止日本“入常”，阻碍了日本的大国化；而中国则认为日本和西方国家在达尔富尔问题上对中国的批评以及对中国在援助透明度问题上的指责是阻止中国崛起，是“中国威胁论”的表现。两国的互不信任势必耗费各自的外交资源，不但不能发挥各自的优势，而且还会造成两败俱伤。 自从福田上台以后，日本积极推行“新福田主义”外交政策，核心是把日本建设成为“和平与合作国家”。在中日关系方面，福田同意全面推进中日战略互惠关系并就全球性问题与中国合作，中日两国在非洲问题的合作也被提到了议事日程。 2007年12月，福田在北大的演讲中提到：“日中两国在政治经济文化获得了世界主要国家的地位，两国在历史上从来没有像今天这样有力量能够为亚洲及世界的稳定与发展做出贡献，日中两国面临着前所未有的如此机遇”。他还直接提出了两国就非洲问题进行合作的建议。他说：“我认为如果日中两国能够携手合作，共同行动，实现非洲的持续发展和帮助它们摆脱贫困的目标的话，将是很有意义的。我希望，我们一定能够实现这一合作。我衷心地希望通过与中国国民的这种共同工作,让日中合作的美丽花朵开遍世界各地。” 其实，福田对外政策的调整，也与中国主张“和平”、“合作”与“发展”的政策理念是相一致的，不用说，它与中日全面推进战略互惠关系的宗旨也是相一致的。胡锦涛在早稻田大学演讲时说：“中国愿同日本一道，积极参与各领域的国际合作，提高协作应对各种挑战的能力，共同推进人类和平与发展的崇高事业。” 胡锦涛还引用莎士比亚的名言说：“世界是个大舞台”，中日两国应该成为这个舞台上的主角，应该“手牵手，肩并肩，在中日合作的大舞台上，在振兴亚洲、促进世界和平与发展的大舞台上，共同创造中日关系更加美好的明天，共同创造世界更加美好的明天”。 胡锦涛的讲话虽然没有正面提到非洲，但是，相信中日在世界舞台上的合作应该不会排除非洲这个舞台，也就是说中日两国在非洲问题上消除疑虑，建立互信，增加合作，在原则上是不成问题的。所以，探讨中日如何在非洲问题上加强合作是今后两国面临的新机遇和新挑战 今年5月，福田在被称为“新福田主义”的题为《亚洲未来》的演讲中再次提到非洲，他说：应该让非洲分享亚洲的经验，“让亚洲太平洋30年来的经验和力量在非洲的发展过程中发挥作用”。 当然，日本要求在非洲问题上与中国合作，显然，一是想为日本在中国的配合下获得非洲的资源以支撑其作为经济大国持续增长的需要提供经济基础；二是想为在中国理解下获得非洲国家支持日本“入常”以实现其政治大国目标扫清障碍。然而，如上所述，在非洲业已成为世界各大国角逐的舞台的背景下，特别是日本的大国化已经日益成为不争的事实的条件下，从大国外交的角度探索中日在非洲合作的可能性应该是一个具有前瞻意义的课题。

英文 Sami G. Hajjar (1980). The Jamahiriya Experiment in Libya: Qadhafi and Rousseau. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 18, pp. 181-200.

Zero Hour in Benghazi by Nicolas Pelham

评汪晖近期出版的日文著作《世界历史中的中国：文革、琉球、西藏》（《世界史の中の中国――文革・琉球・チベット》，笔者：汪暉；译者：石井剛・羽根次郎；东京：青土社，2011年1月24日），柄谷行人于地震次日（3月12日）主持的长池讲义中讨论此书。 -- 作者是我最信赖的中国现代思想家。他是鲁迅研究者出身，在天安门事件时遭到镇压之后，涉足了其它更广泛的领域。但是，从某种意义上来说，他看来似乎走着一条更具鲁迅特色的道路。即他在通晓世界规模的知识状况的同时，还经常在中国这种特殊的文脉下思考问题。这是他比较独特的地方。 本书中也有这样两个观点。一个是从普遍角度来思考世界的状况，并将中国也放在其中。用作者的话来，现代世界的主要倾向是“去政治化”。也许用下面那样的话来说的话更容易理解一点。例如：自1990年之后，我们用“市场经济”这个词语来代替“资本主义”。这就忽视了资本的积累是基于资本与雇佣劳动的阶级关系这一事实，并将资本主义视为是自然与永久的。 在日本和资本主义发达国家发生过这样的“去政治化”，其实中国也同样发生过。在中国，资本主义经济（新自由主义）在“社会主义市场经济”之名下急速展开，各地产生严重的阶级对立。但是这个问题被偷换成了民族主义、民族认同、或者人权问题等“政治”层面上来。这些看上去是政治问题，其实是去离政治的。 本书的另外一个观点是，从中国的特殊问题中提取普遍性的认识。为了理解现代中国的民族问题，我们有必要研究一下由清朝扩大的册封体制，即朝贡关系。从由西方产生的主权国家这种观点来看的话，朝贡关系只是支配—从属的关系而已。但是朝贡关系在实际上以交易形式而表现，帝国根本不干涉其他国家的政治和文化。朝贡关系就是保障贸易和和平的国际体系。如果把它当做“帝国”的话，那么“帝国主义”则先承认对方为主权国家，又将其卷入资本主义经济当中，甚至在文化层面也进行同化。西方列强是以“将从属于‘帝国’的各个国家解放出来”为借口而进行对它们的支配。 要想从历史角度理解现在的西藏问题的话，对这种朝贡关系的理解是不可或缺的。不仅如此，对于包括周边国家在内的亚洲政治结构的理解也是必要的，例如，琉球王国原来向清朝和日本都进贡，但是日本依据近代原理来灭亡这王国，最终将其归为自己的领土。对于现在的冲绳基地问题，如果对上述的事情经过缺乏了解，就无法进行研究。当然，作者并不是在称赞清朝的政治体系，只是想从朝贡关系和儒学的传统中去寻找某些用以能够构建“跨体系社会”的原理的启发而已。 羽根次郎译

美国《外交》双月刊2 0 1 1年3/4月号文章题：后“华盛顿共识”———危机之后的发展，作者美国全球发展中心主席南希·伯索尔、美国斯坦福大学弗里曼-斯波格利国际问题研究所高级研究员弗朗西斯·福山

斯蒂格利茨挪用了林肯的名句--民有民治民享：”美国民主中1%的人获取将近1/4的收入--这种不平等是富有者也将会感到后悔的。“

四月初的华府本来应该是春心荡漾的季节，盛开的樱花为大地回春揭开了秀丽的序幕，灿烂的阳光也驱散了不少早春的寒意。可是华府的政治却弥漫着令人不安的肃杀气氛，共和党保守派夹着去年十一月期中选举大胜的余威，正磨刀霍霍迎接一场预算大战，准备将欧巴马政府的施政计划砍得体无完肤。     　其实美国二○一○财政年度始于去年十月一日，到今年九月三十日结束。由于共和党阻挠，二○一一预算案迄今未在国会获得通过，之前一直是靠一个接一个的临时预算决议支撑政府的运转。目前的临时预算决议只能让政府维持现有的支出水平至四月初，现在两党仍摆明不愿妥协，甚至不惜让联邦政府暂时停摆。     　在共和党尚未夺回众议院多数之前，由于「茶党」运动风起云涌、右派媒体的恶意诋毁、既得利益集团的顽强抵制、以及欧巴马个人的懦弱政治性格，他上台前信誓旦旦要推动三项最重要改革法案：全面医疗保险、整顿金融秩序、以及减少温室气体排放与开发绿色能源，每一项改革方案都难以贯彻，所有通过的立法都是七折八扣。     　现在共和党内由「茶党」支持的极端保守派国会议员更是气焰高涨，准备全面反扑。他们不但坚持要大砍联邦政府预算六一五亿美元，还拒绝为欧巴马的健保改革法提供必要的作业经费，让其无法如期实施。他们还在预算法案中夹带各种极具争议的修正案，例如禁止环保署在这个财政年度内限制发电厂和工厂温室气体排放，不准联邦政府给「家庭计划机构」（Planned Parenthood）提供经费。     　共和党保守派表面上的理由是要避免联邦赤字失控，不让美国重蹈希腊与葡萄牙财政危机的覆辙，但是他们真正的用意在于肢解过去历届民主党总统所建构的社会保障体系。所以他们左手砍社会福利预算，右手护航国防预算，并且坚持维持布什政府针对最富裕群体的减税方案。完全无视于美国目前还有一千四百万人失业，同时还有六百万家庭正陷入房屋遭银行查封拍卖的悲剧。     　同样惨烈的预算大战也正在美国各州展开。在二○一二年财政年度，预计全美有四十四个州和华盛顿特区面临预算短缺，缺口高达一一二○亿。现在全美国各地都在演出图书馆与公园被迫关门、小学老师大量裁减、低收入老年人津贴减少、卫生保健服务中断、警察与公务员周休一日无薪假的凄凉故事。     　共和党保守派不但决心肢解美国的社会保障体系，也决心瓦解民主党的基层组织。新上任的威斯康星州长强力推动立法，限制公务员与老师组织工会的权利，并取消他们的集体谈判权利，在威州首府引发了六○年代越战以来最大规模的示威抗议。类似的政治斗争也正在俄亥俄州、印第安纳州上演。     　威斯康辛大学知名历史学家William Cronon在《纽约时报》撰文批评州长背离该州的「友善、斯文、相互尊重」传统（人文与社会：详情见克鲁格曼：美国思想警察），结果立刻遭遇共和党州议员围剿，要求他交出他大学电子邮箱内出现「共和党」三字的所有邮件。其他大学教授为其声援，抗议学术自由遭遇侵犯，也立刻遭遇共和党外围组织的报复。保守派组织以《信息自由法》名义要求学校交出这些教授信箱内过去几个月所有出现「威斯康辛」、「工会」等字眼的电子邮件，准备指控他们利用「上班时间」与「公家资源」从事政治活动，一场文字狱风波正方兴未艾。     　而与此形成强烈对比的，是欢颜绽开的华尔街金融大鳄。过去即使民主党拥有参众两院多数，欧巴马倾尽全力所通过的金融改革法案，也只能成立新的保护消费者机构、赋予监管机构更大权力解散陷入困境的金融企业、加强限制高风险的衍生工具交易活动、禁止传统银行同时经营投资银行业务，却未能限制金融高级主管的收入和分红。     　这一年多来，在联准会量化宽松货币政策的支撑下股市回暖，金融和银行业盈利恢复，华尔街的贪婪本性故态复萌，纷纷向政府施加压力要求放宽监管。同时，去年美国金融机构给高级主管的薪资与红利又创下历史新高，共发放了一一四○亿美金。历史再度证明他们才是美国政治的永远赢家。     　（作者为台湾大学政治学系教授）

在古代埃及人那里，确切(exactness)是用一根羽毛作为象征的；羽毛作为秤盘上的砝码用以测量灵魂。这一轻轻的羽毛叫做马特（Maat），是天平女神。记录马特的象形文字也指长度单位，即标准砖块的三十三厘米的长度，还指笛子的基本音符。 这一知识来源于乔其奥·德·桑蒂拉纳（Giorgio de Santillana）论古代人观察天象之精确的演讲；这个演讲是我一九六三年在意大利听的，它给了我一种深刻的影响。近来，我常常想起桑蒂拉纳，我一九六○年初访美国时在麻萨诸塞州他是我的向导。为了纪念他的友谊，我用天平女神马特的名字开始我这篇论文学中的确切的讲演——而且，还因为天平座是黄道十二宫中我的符号。 首先，我想先来规定一下我的题目内容。我认为，确切首先是指三件事： 一、为一件工作制定的规定明确、计算细致的计划；  二、引发出清晰、鲜明容易记忆的视觉形象。在意大利语里有一个来自希腊语的形容词icastico，在英语里是没有的；  三、在造词和表现思想和想象力的微妙时，尽可能使用确切的语言。 为什么我感到必须保卫许多人可能已经认为极为明显的一些价值观了呢？我想，我的第一个冲动来自一种敏感。我觉得语言总是在被随意地、近似地漫不经心地使用着，这个情况令我烦恼，不可忍受。请不要认为我这种反应是我对我的邻居不宽容的结果：实际上最大的不愉快来源于我听到自己的言谈。 我之所以尽量少说话，原因也就在这里。如果说我爱好写作，那就是因为我可以审察每一个句子——如果我不十分满意我的遣词造句的话——我至少可以消除我能看到的、令我不满意的原因所在。文学——我指的是可以达到这种要求的文学——文学是福地，语言在这里应该显现出其真正面目。有时候我觉得有某种瘟疫侵袭了人类最为独特的机能，也就是说，使用词汇的机能。这是一种危害语言的时疫，表现为认识能力和相关性的丧失，表现为随意下笔，把全部表达方式推进一种最平庸、最没有个性、最抽象的公式中去，冲淡意义，挫钝表现力的锋芒，消灭词汇碰撞和新事物迸发出来的火花。 在这里，我不想多谈这种瘟疫的各种可能的根源，无论这种根源是否在于政治、意识形态、官僚机构统一用语、传播媒介的千篇一律，是否在于各种学校传授凡夫俗子们文化的方式。我关心的是维护健康的办法。文学，很可能只有文学，才能创造出医治这种语言疾病的抗体。 我还要补充一句，不仅仅语言看来是受到这种瘟疫的侵袭。例如，再看看视觉形象吧。我们生活在没完没了的倾盆大雨的形象之中。最强有力的传播媒介把世界转化成为形象，并且通过魔镜的奇异而杂乱的变化大大地增加这个世界的形象。然而，这些形象被剥去了内在的必要性，不能够使每一种形象成为一种形式，一种内容，不能受到注意，不能成为某种意义的来源。 这种如烟如雾的视觉形象的大部分一出现便消退，像梦一样不会在记忆中留下痕迹；但是，消退不了的却是一种疏离和令人不快的感觉。 不过，这种缺乏内涵的情况不仅仅见于形象或者语言，而且也见于世界本身。这种瘟疫也时时侵袭人们的生活和民族的历史。它使全部的历史漫无定形、散乱、混杂，既无头，又无尾。因为我察觉到生活缺乏形式而痛感不快，就想使用我能想到的唯一的武器来反抗，这就是关于文学的思想。因此，我甚至要使用消极的词语来规定我要全力保护的价值观。使用同样有说服力的论据来为相反的论题辩护能否成功，当然还有待观察。例如，贾科莫·列奥帕第认为，语言越模糊、越不精确，就越有诗意。我还想顺便说一下，就我所知，只有在意大利语中，“模糊”（vago）这个词还有“可爱的，有吸引力的” 意思。vago一词原意为“流浪的”，还带有运动与变化的含义，在意大利语中既和不确定性、非限定性，也和优雅和快乐联系在一起。 为了证实我对确切性的推崇，我想再回顾一下列奥帕第在《凡人琐事》中对vago的称赞。他说：“‘遥远的’、‘古代的’还有,（乱码）不确定的意念。”（一八二一年九月二十五日）。“‘夜’、‘夜晚的’等词，用来描写夜等等，很有诗意，因为夜晚使景物模糊，心智只接受一种苍茫的、不清晰的、不完备的形象，夜本身及其所包含的形象。‘幽暗’、‘深邃’也是如此。” 列奥帕第的说理完善地体现在他的诗中，他的诗给事实的证明带来了权威性。我重新浏览《凡人琐事》，寻找表明他这种爱好的例证，无意中发现比较长的一段，罗列出许多激发心智“不确定”状态的情景： 从一个看不到太阳或月亮、无法识别光源的地方见到的阳光或者月光；一个仅仅部分地受到这种光线照明的地方；这种光线的反光，这种光线造成的不同物质的效应；这种光线穿过某些地方而变得不确切、受到阻隔，因而不易分辨，例如透过竹林、树丛，半关闭的百叶窗，等等等等；这种光线在某种它不直接透入和照射，却由它照射的某一其他地方或物体反射或散乱的地方；在一个从里边或者从外边看的道理[“道路”之误？]里，同样的，在一个走廊里，等等，光线和阴影混合等等的地方，又如在柱廊下、在高耸的拱顶走廊下、在岩石丛和溪谷中、在只能看到阴影侧面而顶端呈现金色的山峦上；光线透过彩色窗玻璃在所及物体上造成的反光；总之，通过一种不确定、不清晰、不完美、不完全，或者不同寻常的方式，藉着各种不同物质和小环境及于我们视觉、听觉等等的全部客体。 这就是列奥帕第对我们的要求，他叫我们品味模糊与不限定的事物的美！他所要求的是确切地、细致地注意每一个形象的布局、细节的微细限定、物体的选择、光照和大气，这一切都是为了达到高度的模糊性。进行概念辩护的理想对手的列奥帕第，到头来竟是维护这个概念的重要见证人……朦胧诗人只能是提倡准确性的诗人，善于用眼睛和耳朵、用敏捷而百发百中的手捕捉最微妙的感觉。把《凡人琐事》中的这一段札记读完是十分值得的，因为寻求不限定事物就是观察全部多重的、丰富的、由无数分子组成的一切。 与此成为对照的是，一片广阔、优美田野上，或晴朗天空中等等所见到的太阳或者月亮，令人心旷神怡。同样道理，天空飘着朵朵白云，阳光或者月光透过云朵造成种种不同的、模糊的、不同寻常的效果，这种景象也令人赏心悦目。最令人愉快和感受多样化的是城市里看到的光线；在城市里，光线被阴影切分，幽暗在许多地方和光明形成对照，在许多地方——例如在屋顶上，光线逐渐变少，有些突出的地方挡住我们观望光体的视线，等等，等等。扩展这种愉快的是多样性、不确定性、无法看见一切的情况，因此可以漫步徘徊，去想象无法看到的一切。类似的事物产生类似的效果，如树木、藤丛、山峦、凉亭、远处的屋舍、草垛、田垅，等等。另外一方面，一片宽广的平野，亮光铺满、流泻，没有变化、不受阻挡，令目光迷茫，也是让人欣喜的，因为这样的景观给人带来无限延展的遐想，万里无云的晴空也是如此。在这方面，我注意到，多样性和不确定性给人的愉快，是比显而易见的非限定性和巨大的整齐划一给人的愉快更大的。因此，点缀着几朵白云的天空也许比全无点缀的晴空更让人愉快；仰望天空也许不如眺望大地和田野等等愉快，因为多样性小（不很像我们自己，不太是我们自己，不太属于我们自己的杂物，等等）。的确，如果你仰面向上躺下；则只看到天空，和大地隔离开，这时候你的感觉是远远不如你远望大地、或者按比例地和大地联系起来观望天空、以同一视角将其统一起来的时候愉快的。 出自上述理由，观看极为众多的事物也是令人愉快的，如繁星，如人群，等等；这是多重的运动，不确定、紊乱、不规则、没有秩序，这是一种模糊的起伏，等等，如人群、如蚁群，或者波涛汹涌的大海，等等，心智是不能确定地或者显明地感受的，等等。类似的还有不规则地混合为一、不易分辨彼此的、交响的声音。 在这里，我们触及了列奥帕第诗学的神经中枢之一，这中枢就蕴含在他一首最著名、最优美的抒情诗《无限》之中。诗人受到一道篱笆的保护，在篱笆尽头他只看到天空；他想象着无限的宇宙空间，感受到喜悦与惧怕。这首诗作于一八一九年。我在《凡人琐事》中看到在此两年后的一则札记[*]表明，列奥帕第在继续考虑着《无限》这首诗引发出的问题。在他的思索中，常常比较的两个词语是不确定的和“无限”。列奥帕第是一个不幸福的享乐主义者，对于他来说，未知的一切总是比已知的一切更有魅力；对于经历中的失望和悲伤来说，希望和想象是仅有的慰藉。 因此，人总要把自己的欲望投射到无限中去，而且只有在能够想象这种愉快没有结尾时方才感到愉快。然而，由于人的心智不能设想无限，而且事实上一想到无限就感到莫名惊恐，所以只好满足于不确定的感受；这类感受混合为一，创造出一种虽是幻觉，却又是愉快的无限宇宙的印象：“沉没在这片海水中我也感到甜美。”不仅仅在这首《无限》的著名结尾中柔和战胜了恐惧，而且全部诗行通过词语音乐表达出了一种柔和感，虽然这些词语可能表现出忧虑。 我知道，我是纯粹从感受方面来解释列奥帕第的，似乎已经接受了他作为一个十八世纪感觉论门徒所要给予的他自己的形象。事实上列奥帕第所面对的问题是思辨的和形而上学的，是从帕美尼德斯（Parmenides）到笛卡儿和康德的哲学史上的一个问题，即：作为绝对空间和绝对时间的无限的观念与我们关于空间与时间的经验知识二者之间的关系。因而，列奥帕第的出发点是关于空间与时间的数学概念的严格抽象，并将其与感觉的模糊而不确定的流动加以比较。 所以，准确与缺乏确定性是两极；罗伯特·穆希尔（Robert Musil）没有结尾的（实际上是未完成的）小说《没有品格的人》（Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften）中的人物乌尔里希（Ulrich）的哲学思考和反讽思想不断地在这两极之间摆动： 如果被观察的因素是准确性本身，如果把它孤立出来并令其发展，如果把它认定为一种精神习惯和一种生活方式，让它对于每种接触它的事物施加它示范性的影响，那么，合乎逻辑的结论则是：人具有精确和不确定性这种相谬结合的特性。人具有一种不可动摇的、有意的镇定倾向，即伴同确切性的气质；然而，除了这一品质、超出这种品质，则一切都是不确定的。 穆希尔最接近某种可能的解决办法的时刻是在他提及这一事实的时候：数学问题不承认某种总体的解决，但是个体的解决办法汇合之后，是能够得出某种总体的解决的（第83章）。他认为这个办法可能也适用于人类的生活。多年以后，另一位作家，罗兰·巴特（Roland Barthes）认为，确切性这一魔鬼是和敏感性这魔鬼并列生存的，并且提问道是否可以设想出一种研究独一无二、不可重复事物的科学：“为什么不能以某种方式为每一个对象建立一门科学呢？”如果说穆希尔的乌尔里希很快地屈服于追求确切性的热情必定遭受的失败的话，那么，保尔·瓦莱里的台斯特先生（Monsieur Teste）——本世纪另一个智慧型文学人物——则毫不怀疑人类的精神能够在最精确、最严格的条件下发挥出潜能。列奥帕第是抒发人生悲哀的诗人；在描写给人愉快的不准确感受方面表现出高度的确切性；而描写冷静严格理智的诗人瓦莱里，则让他的人物台斯特先生面对疼痛，让他以运算抽象几何的方法来对抗躯体的痛苦，从而展示出高度的准确性。 “这算不了……什么，”他说。“没什么，不过……顶多有十分之一秒……等一下……有几刹那，我的身体全给照亮了……很有意思。我突然看见了我内部……我可以看到我肌肉层次的深处：我感觉到了痛感区……疼痛是环状、棍状、羽毛状的。你们看到了这些活的形体了吗，我的几何形的痛感？这些闪烁恰恰像思想一样。让我理解——从这儿，到那儿……可是也让我感到犹疑。令人犹疑的不是词儿[+]……一个词要出现的时候，我发觉我有某种困惑或恍惚。我感到脑海里出现……影影绰绰一片一片的，广阔的空间出现在眼前。于是我从记忆中挑选出一个问题，任何一个问题……我全神思考它。我数沙粒的数目……只要我能看见这些沙粒……但是越来越大的剧痛迫使我去观察它。我正分析它呢！我就等我哭了……我刚一听见它，这个对象，可怕的对象，就变小，越来越小，从我内在视线中消失了。” 在二十世纪，只有保尔·瓦莱里最精辟地给诗下了一个定义：努力追求确切。我现在主要谈谈他作为一个批评家和文论作者的作品，在这些作品里，关于确切性的诗学可以通过从马拉美（Mallarme）到波德莱尔（Baudelaire），和从波德莱尔到埃德加·爱伦·坡（Edgar Allan Poe）直线地推本溯源。 在爱伦·坡身上——在波德莱尔和马拉美眼里的爱伦·坡——瓦莱里看见了“明快的魔鬼、分析的天才、逻辑与想象力、神秘主义与明确计算的最新式、最有诱惑力组合的发明者、研究特殊现象的心理学家、研究和使用全部艺术手段的文学工程师”。瓦莱里在论文《波德莱尔的情景》中写了这段话；我认为这篇论文具有某种诗学宣言的价值；他还有另外一篇论爱伦·坡和宇宙创造论的论文，其中谈到了《尤莱卡》（Eureka）。在论爱伦坡的《尤莱卡》的论文中，瓦莱里就作为一种文学体裁，而不是作为一种科学思辨的宇宙创造论提出疑问，并且雄辩地反驳了关于“宇宙”的观念，这也是对于“宇宙”的每一个形象 所具有的神话般力量的肯定。在这里，正如在列奥帕第那里一样，我们也看到了关于无限的吸引力与排斥力。还有，在这里，我们也看到了宇宙论猜想被看作为一种文学体裁，列奥帕第就是在几篇“伪经的”散文中来以此作为消遣品：《斯特拉托尼·达·兰普萨科的伪经片段》谈地球的开始、尤其是终结，地球变得扁平、空心，像土星环一样，渐渐消散，最后在太阳中烧毁；他翻译的一篇伪经犹太法典文段《大野雄鸡之歌调》（Cantico del gallo silvestre），在这里整个宇宙都毁灭、消失了：“广漠无垠的空间中将笼罩着一种赤裸裸的寂静和最为深沉的凝重感。这样，宇宙存在的这种奇异而令人惊惧的秘密还未及探明和理解，就会消隐、化为乌有。”在这里，我们看到，令人惊惧而又不可思议的不是无限的空无，而是存在。 这篇讲演一直上不了我预定的轨道。开始的时候，我是要谈确切性、而不是谈无限和宇宙的。我是想要告诉诸位我热爱几何形式、对称、数列、一切可组合物、数的比例等等；我是想要解 释一番我就我对界限、量度等……的忠诚态度所写下的东西……但是，很可能，正是这个关于形式的观念引发出来了关于无限的观念：整数序列，欧几里德直线……与其向诸位谈我已经写的东西，还不如谈谈别的更有意思，比如我还没有解决的问题，不知道怎么解决的问题，这些问题又会促使我写些什么：有的时候我力图集中精力写一篇我想要写的短篇小说，可是我却又知道我感兴趣的完全是别的内容，或者不是什么具体的内容，而是符合我应该写的内容的某种事——这就是某一论据及其全部可能的变体或取代物之间的关系，在时间和空间中可能发生的种种情况。这是一种吞噬一切的、毁灭性的着魔心态，足以使写作无法进行。为了对抗这种心态，我想尽力限制我要谈论的范围，把它划分为更为限定的范围，再加以划分，等等。可是另一种晕眩又袭击了我，这就是细节的晕眩，我被拖进了无限小，或者极微之中，正如我以前被拖入无限大之中一样。 “善良的上帝在细节中。”我想用乔达诺·布鲁诺（Giordano Bruno）这位伟大而有见识的宇宙论者的哲学来解释福楼拜的这句名言；布鲁诺把宇宙看成是无限的，由无数的世界组成，但是他又不能称其为“完全无限”，因为这些世界中的每一个都是有限的。另一方面，上帝却是无限的：“他的全部都是在整个世界，而且是无限地、全然地就在这世界的每一部分之中。”过去几年之内我最常读、重读和思考过的意大利文书籍之中，有保罗·杰里尼（Paolo Zellini）的《论无限性的简史》（Breve Storia Dell''infinito，1980）。本书以博尔赫斯对《龟的化身》的无限的攻击开卷[#]（这个概念令其他人走上歧途并且困惑），继而评论有关这一议题的全部论据，结果，消散了这个议题，使无限性转成为艰深的无限小。 我认为文学作品的形式选择和对于某种宇宙论模式（或者某种总体的神话学参照系）的需要之间的这种联系，甚至在并未清晰宣扬这一点的作家身上也是存在的。这种几何布局的爱好的历史可以马拉美开始在世界文学中探索，而这种爱好是以作为现代科学基础的有序和无序的对照为基础的。宇宙分解为一团热，必定化为熵的涡动，但是在这个不可逆转的过程中有可能出现某些有序的区域，即存在的一些部分，这些部分倾向成为某种形式；即某些特殊的点，我们在其中似乎可以见出某种图案或者图景。一篇文学作品就是这种最小部分之一，其中的存在物结晶成为一个形体，形成某种意义——不是固定的、不是限定的、没有变得岩石般稳固僵凝，而是像有机体一样是有生命的。 诗歌是偶然性的大敌，虽然它又是偶然性的女儿，所以，归根结底，偶然性将会赢得战斗（投一次骰子不会取消机遇）。在这一语境中，我们可以看一看本世纪最初几十年的形体艺术和后来在文学中蔚然成风的对逻辑的、几何的和形而上学的程序的重新评价。如法国的保尔·瓦莱里、美国的华莱士·斯蒂汶斯（Wallace Stevens）、德国的戈特弗里德·本恩（Gottfried Benn）、葡萄牙的费尔南多·佩索亚（Fernando Pessoa）、西班牙的拉蒙·德·拉·塞尔纳（Ramon Gomez de la Serna）、意大利的马西莫·邦探佩里（Massimo Bontempelli）和阿根廷的霍尔赫·路易斯·博尔赫斯（Jorge Luis Borges）。 因为具有精确的小平面和能够折射光线，晶体是完美性的模型，我一向珍视它，视它为一种象征；而且，这一偏爱已经变得更有意义，因为我们知道，晶体发生和成长的某些特性和最基本的生物体一样，在矿物世界和有生命物之间架起一座桥梁。在我为寻求对想象力的刺激而涉猎的科学著作中，我最近看到，生命体形成过程的模式“清楚地体现在晶体这方面（特殊结构物的恒定）和火焰这另一方面（尽管内部强烈震荡，依然保持外部形式的恒定）”。我所引用的是马西莫·皮亚泰里-帕尔马里尼Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini写的序言，这本书是专论一九七五年在罗奥蒙特（Royaumont）中心由让·皮亚杰（Jean Piaget）和诺姆·乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）进行的一场辩论的（Language and Learning，1980，p.6）。火焰与晶体的对比的形象可以用来显现向生物学提供的选择，并且由此而过渡到关于语言和学习能力的理论。我现在是不谈皮亚杰和乔姆斯基所提出的见解中包含的对科学哲学的意义；皮亚杰主张“噪音中的秩序”即火焰的原则，而乔姆斯基则赞成“自我组成的系统”即晶体。 在这里，我感兴趣的是这两个象征的对比，正如我在上次讲演中提及的十六世纪象征之一那样。晶体与火焰：两种我们一定要凝望不已的完备优美的形式，两种随时间而成长、而消耗其周围物质的模式，两种道德的象征，两种绝对物，对事实和思想、风格和情感加以分类的两个类别。上文中我暗示二十世纪文学中的“晶体派”，我想，也可以提“火焰派”的近似的名单吧。我一向认为自己是晶体派的拥戴者，但是上一段引文却教导我不要忘记作为一种存在形式、一种生存模式的火焰的价值。同样，我也希望自认为火焰派信徒的人看到晶体派那种不声不响、不畏辛劳的风格。 给予我更大机会来表现几何理性与人生莫测变幻之间的张力的、更为繁杂的形象是城市的形象。我尽力多加叙述我的思想的书依然是《隐身城市》（Invisible Cities），因为我在书中聚集了我对一个单一象征全部的思考、实验和猜想；还因为我构建了一个多面的结构物，在其中每篇短文都十分接近其他短文，组成一个不表现逻辑序列或者等级关系的系列；它要表现的是一个网络，在这个网络中可以采纳多重的途径，得出多重的、派生的结论。 在我写的《隐身城市》中，每一个概念和价值尺度——甚至确切性——都证明是双重的。在某一点上，忽必烈汗体现出了走向理性化、几何和代数的智慧的趋势，把他对帝国的知识降低为棋盘上棋子的行走规则。马可·波罗（Marco Polo）以大量细节向忽必烈描述的城市，忽必烈却用黑白棋格上城堡、主教、士、王、后和卒的种种排列来代表。这种做法给他带来的最后结论是，他南征北战的目标不过是每个棋子身下的木座：这是虚无的象征。但是，在这一时刻出现了场景的骤变，因为马可·波罗请求忽必烈仔细审视他所看到的虚无： 大汗想要集中精神下棋，但是下棋的道理现在却让他感到困惑。每局棋的结果是非输即赢，但是赢了什么、输了什么呢？真正的赌注是什么呢？在将死的时候，在赢家的手把王推开后，王位的脚下什么也没有剩下，只有一个黑格或者白格。忽必烈剥去了他多番征战的表层，以看其本质，作出了一次终极的运算：这是一次最终的征服，而帝国多种多样的财宝只不过是虚幻的外衣而已；这最终的征战被降低为平板上的一格。 于是，马可·波罗说：“大王的棋盘上镶嵌着两种木块，黑木和枫木。大王看着的那一个棋格的木头是从一个在干旱年份里成长的树干上砍下来的；大王看到年轮、木纹是怎么排列的吧？这儿，细看可以看出一个结子：在一个早春，一个幼芽正要冒出，可是夜里下霜，它又停住了。” 到那个时候以前，大汗一直没有注意到这个外国人说大汗国的活竟说得这么流利，但是，令他赞叹的却不是马可·波罗的语言流利。“这个有一个小厚疽儿，大概是一个幼虫窝；不过不是钻木虫的，因为钻木虫生下来以后就要往下钻；应该是一个毛毛虫，因为毛毛虫吃树叶子，所以这棵树才被人发现，用斧子砍倒了……木匠用尺子划出了这个边儿，以便和下一个格子接上，更显得清楚了……”这么一小块光滑而空荡的木头中竟然包含这么多的道理，令忽必烈十分惊奇；而马可·波罗现在又谈起黑木森林、顺流而下装满木材的筏子、码头和倚窗眺望的女人…… 从我写下上一页书的时刻起，我就明确意识到我对于确切性的寻求走上了两个方向：一方面，把次要情节降低成为抽象的类型，可以依据这些类型来进行运算并且展现原理；另一方面，通过选词造句的努力尽可能确切地展现物体可感的面貌。 事实上，我的写作过程一直是面对着符合知识的两种类型的不同途径的。一条途径引向无形体的理性的空间，可以在这里追索将要汇合的线、投影、抽象的形式、力的矢量。另外一条途径则要穿过塞满物体的空间，并且试图通过在纸页上写满字的办法创造出这个空间的语言等价物，作出最细心、最艰苦的努力，使已写出的东西适应尚未写出的，适应一切可言说和不可言说的总体。这两种奔向确切性的努力永远也不会圆满成功：一是因为“自然”语言言说的总要比形式化的语言多，自然语言总是带有影响信息本体的一定数量的噪音；二是语言在表现我们周围世界的密度和延续性时会显出它的缺陷和片断性：它所言说的总是比我们所能体验的一切要少。 我在这两条路中间不断地跳来跳去；在我觉得我已经充分探索了一条路的好处的时候，我就跳向另一条，反之亦然。因而，在最近几年，我用以取代故事结构练习的是描写方面的其他练习；在今天，这是一门被大大忽视了的艺术。像一个小学生写家庭作业以《描写长颈鹿》或者《描写星空》为题写作文一样，我也努力在笔记本中写满了这样的练习，而且从这些材料中编写出一本书来。这就是《帕洛马尔先生》（Mr. Palomar），英译本最近已经出版（一九八五年）。这是一种日记，谈的是知识的最细微的问题、与世界建立关系的方式，和在使用沉默与语言中得到的满足和失望。 在这类的探索中，我是一直记着诗人们的实践的。我想到了威廉·卡洛斯·威廉斯（William Carlos Williams），他描写樱草的叶子细致入微，我们可以在想象中伏在他为我们描述的叶片上的花朵：他就是这样地把这一植物的纤细秀丽赋予这首诗的。 我也想到了玛丽安·莫尔（Marianne Moore），她在描写她那动物寓言集中长着鳞甲的食蚁兽和鹦鹉螺及全部其他动物时，是把动物学著作中的有关知识和种种象征的和寓言的意义融汇在一起的，从而使她的每一首诗都是一篇讲道德伦理的寓言。我又想到了尤赫尼奥·蒙塔莱（Eugenio Montale），可以说他在《鳗鱼》这首诗中总结了上面两位的成就。这首诗只有一个很长的句子，形体像一条鳗鱼，记述了鳗鱼的整个一生，使鳗鱼成为一个道德的象征。 但是，我尤其想到了弗朗西斯·彭热（Francis Ponge），因为他以他短小的散文诗创造了现代文学中一个独特的体裁：那个小学生的“练习本”：在这个本子里，他把文字作为世界上现象的延伸而开始练习写作，通过了一系列的预演、草稿和概算。对我来说，彭热是无与伦比的大师，因为《万物有本心》（Le parti pris des choses）中的简短篇章和他其他的同类作品，虽然读的是一只虾、一个石子儿或者一块肥皂，但是给我们提供了最好的战斗范例，他要迫使语言成为万物的语言，语言从万物出发，归返到我们感官时却已发生变化：获得了我们投放于万物中的人性。彭热直言道明的意思是，通过简洁的说文及其匠心独具的变体，来编写一部新《物性论》。我相信他可能成为当代的卢克莱修，他要通过词汇轻而无实体的、粉末般的纤尘来重建世界万物的物性。 在我看来，彭热的成就是和马拉美并驾齐驱的，方向尽管不同，却是互补的。在马拉美那里，由于达到了最高一级的抽象，而且表明虚无是世界终极本质，词语达到了极致的确切性。在彭热那里，世界呈现的是最微不足道、次要而不对称事物的物体，而世界恰恰就让我们认识到这些不规则的、细小而繁复形体的无限的多样性。 有人认为，词汇是用以获取世界本质，最终的、独特的、绝对的本质的手段。其实，词汇代表不了本质，只能与其本身同一（所以称词汇是达到目的的手段是错误的）：词汇只认识它本身，提供不了关于世界的其他知识。另外一些人认为，使用词汇就是对事物的不断的探索，虽然不能接近事物本质，却可以接近事物无限的多样性，可以触及事物不可穷尽的多种形式的表层。 霍夫曼塔尔（Hoffmannsthal）说，“深层是隐藏着的。在哪里呢？就在表层上。”维特根斯坦（Wittgenstein）说得更绝：“凡是隐藏着的……我们都不感兴趣。”我不想把话说绝。我认为，我们总是在寻求某种隐藏着的，或者潜在的，或者设想中的东西，只要这些东西出现在表层，我们就要追踪。我认为，我们的基本思维过程是通过每一个历史时期延续留给我们的，从我们旧石器时代进行狩猎和采集活动的先父时代起。词汇把可见的踪迹和不可见物、不在场的物、欲求或者惧怕的物联系了起来，像深渊上架起的一道细弱的紧急时刻使用的桥一样。 正因为如此，至少对我个人来说，恰当地使用语言就能使我们稳妥、专注、谨慎地接近万物（可见的或者不可见的），同时器重万物（可见的或者不可见的）不通过语言向我们发出的信息。 列奥纳多·达芬奇（Leonardo da Vinci）是一个为了把握住他的表达能力所不及的事物而和语言进行搏斗的突出范例。列奥纳多的手稿本不同寻常地记载了和语言——粗俗、尖利的语言的斗争；他不断地从这种语言中寻求更丰富的、更细腻的和更准确的表达法。处理一个意念的各个阶段（比如弗朗西斯·彭热，是把处理的情况连续发表了的，因为真正的劳作不是在于最终的形式，而是在于为获得这种形式而达到的一系列的近似表述）对于作为作家的列奥纳多来说，是他在把写作视为一种知识工具而投入的努力的证明；同时也是这样一个事实的证明，即：对于他曾考虑撰写的著作来说，他感兴趣的是探索的过程，而不是完成撰写拿去发表。列奥纳多写作的关于物件或动物系列短小寓言的主题，都常常是类似彭热的。 例如，让我们来看一看关于火的一则寓言吧。列奥纳多给了我们一个明快的梗概：火因为锅里的水在自己的上方而恼怒，虽然火是“更高级的”原素，却冒出火焰，越冒越高，把水烧开，令水溢出而把自己浇灭。列奥纳多不厌其烦地把这个故事连续写了三个文稿，都不完全，成并列的三段。每次他都添加一些细节，描写火焰如何从一小块木炭发出，劈劈啪啪地钻过木柴中间的空隙，越烧越大。但是很快他就打住了，因为他意识到，即使用来说一个最简单的故事，一个细节的详尽描写也是没有尽头的。即使是厨房中木柴烧着的故事也能够从其本身发展，变得没有尽头。 列奥纳多自称“没有文字修养”，所以和书面文字的关系困难。他的知识在当时世界上没有人能超过，但是他不懂拉丁文，不懂语法，也就妨碍了他用文字和当时的知识界交流。他肯定认为他能够用草图比用文字更清楚地表述他的许多知识。他在谈解剖学的笔记中写道：“啊，作家，你用什么文字才能够像素描这样完美地表现出这整个的图形呢？”不仅在科学方面；而且在哲学方面他也确信用绘画和素描他表达得更好。然而，他也越来越感觉到需要写作，用写作来探讨世界的多形态现象和秘密，来纪录他的种种想象、情绪变化和烦闷怨恨——例如他要责备一些文人，这些人只会拾人牙慧，和自然与人之间的发明者和解释者毫无共同之处。因此，他越写越多。几年过去之后，他完全放弃了绘画，只用写作和素描来表达自己的见解，似乎只遵循用素描和词语进行探讨这一条线路，用他那左手镜读反书文字填满了许多笔记本。 在大西洲笔记对开本265号上，列奥纳多开始记录证据，以确认地球成长的理论。在举出被泥土吞没的城市例子后，他进一步讨论在山地发现的海洋生物化石，尤其是某些骨骼，他认为必定属于太古时期的某种海怪。在这一时刻，他的想象必定充塞着在波浪中游荡的巨大海兽的图景。不管怎么样吧，他把这页纸倒了过来，努力捕捉这个动物的形象，三次尝试写一个句子来表达对这一图景的惊叹。 啊，有多少次你被看到在汹涌海洋中沉浮，你长满毛刺的黑背像大山一样突兀，你仪态沉稳而端庄！ 然后，他使用了“旋转”这个动词，以求给这个巨兽的活动增添更多的动感。 有多少次你被看到在汹涌海洋中沉浮，你仪态沉稳而端庄，在海水中旋转。你长满毛刺的黑背像大山一样突兀，击败并且驾驭了海水！ 但是，在他看来，“旋转”这个词降低了他想要引发出的壮观和宏伟的印象。所以他选择了“犁开”这个动词，并改变了整个句势，给它带来了紧凑感和节奏感，颇具文学判断性。 啊，有多少次你被看到在汹涌海洋中沉浮，你像大山一样突兀，击败并且驾驭了巨浪，你长满毛刺的黑背犁开了海水，仪态沉稳而端庄！ 这个景象被表现得几乎是大自然威严力量的象征；列奥纳多对这影象的求索让我们看到了他的想象力活动的一斑。我在这次演讲结束之际把这一形象留给诸位，希望诸位把它尽可能长久地留在记忆之中，连同它的全部的透明性和神秘感。   [*] 整理者注：当即为前文所引、论述“不确定性”的札记。 [+] 整理者注：参看台湾译本，此句似当为“‘令人犹疑的’不是合适的字眼”。后文亦不当是“一个词要出现的时候”，而是“它们[几何形的痛感]要出现的时候”。 [#] 整理者注：《龟的化身》（Avatars of the Tortoise）当为博尔赫斯作品。

BARTLEBY, THE SCRIVENER.A STORY OF WALL-STREET.I am a rather elderly man. The nature of my avocations for the last thirty years has brought me into more than ordinary contact with what would seem an interesting and somewhat singular set of men, of whom as yet nothing that I know of has ever been written:—I mean the law-copyists or scriveners. I have known very many of them, professionally and privately, and if I pleased, could relate divers histories, at which good-natured gentlemen might smile, and sentimental souls might weep. But I waive the biographies of all other scriveners for a few passages in the life of Bartleby, who was a scrivener of the strangest I ever saw or heard of. While of other law-copyists I might write the complete life, of Bartleby nothing of that sort can be done. I believe that no materials exist for a full and satisfactory biography of this man. It is an irreparable loss to literature. Bartleby was one of those beings of whom nothing is ascertainable, except from the original sources, and in his case those are very small. What my own astonished eyes saw of Bartleby, that is all I know of him, except, indeed, one vague report which will appear in the sequel.Ere introducing the scrivener, as he first appeared to me, it is fit I make some mention of myself, my employees, my business, my chambers, and general surroundings; because some such description is indispensable to an adequate understanding of the chief character about to be presented.Imprimis: I am a man who, from his youth upwards, has been filled with a profound conviction that the easiest way of life is the best. Hence, though I belong to a profession proverbially energetic and nervous, even to turbulence, at times, yet nothing of that sort have I ever suffered to invade my peace. I am one of those unambitious lawyers who never addresses a jury, or in any way draws down public applause; but in the cool tranquility of a snug retreat, do a snug business among rich men's bonds and mortgages and title-deeds. All who know me, consider me an eminently safe man. The late John Jacob Astor, a personage little given to poetic enthusiasm, had no hesitation in pronouncing my first grand point to be prudence; my next, method. I do not speak it in vanity, but simply record the fact, that I was not unemployed in my profession by the late John Jacob Astor; a name which, I admit, I love to repeat, for it hath a rounded and orbicular sound to it, and rings like unto bullion. I will freely add, that I was not insensible to the late John Jacob Astor's good opinion.Some time prior to the period at which this little history begins, my avocations had been largely increased. The good old office, now extinct in the State of New York, of a Master in Chancery, had been conferred upon me. It was not a very arduous office, but very pleasantly remunerative. I seldom lose my temper; much more seldom indulge in dangerous indignation at wrongs and outrages; but I must be permitted to be rash here and declare, that I consider the sudden and violent abrogation of the office of Master in Chancery, by the new Constitution, as a—premature act; inasmuch as I had counted upon a life-lease of the profits, whereas I only received those of a few short years. But this is by the way.My chambers were up stairs at No.—Wall-street. At one end they looked upon the white wall of the interior of a spacious sky-light shaft, penetrating the building from top to bottom. This view might have been considered rather tame than otherwise, deficient in what landscape painters call "life." But if so, the view from the other end of my chambers offered, at least, a contrast, if nothing more. In that direction my windows commanded an unobstructed view of a lofty brick wall, black by age and everlasting shade; which wall required no spy-glass to bring out its lurking beauties, but for the benefit of all near-sighted spectators, was pushed up to within ten feet of my window panes. Owing to the great height of the surrounding buildings, and my chambers being on the second floor, the interval between this wall and mine not a little resembled a huge square cistern.At the period just preceding the advent of Bartleby, I had two persons as copyists in my employment, and a promising lad as an office-boy. First, Turkey; second, Nippers; third, Ginger Nut. These may seem names, the like of which are not usually found in the Directory. In truth they were nicknames, mutually conferred upon each other by my three clerks, and were deemed expressive of their respective persons or characters. Turkey was a short, pursy Englishman of about my own age, that is, somewhere not far from sixty. In the morning, one might say, his face was of a fine florid hue, but after twelve o'clock, meridian—his dinner hour—it blazed like a grate full of Christmas coals; and continued blazing—but, as it were, with a gradual wane—till 6 o'clock, P.M. or thereabouts, after which I saw no more of the proprietor of the face, which gaining its meridian with the sun, seemed to set with it, to rise, culminate, and decline the following day, with the like regularity and undiminished glory. There are many singular coincidences I have known in the course of my life, not the least among which was the fact, that exactly when Turkey displayed his fullest beams from his red and radiant countenance, just then, too, at that critical moment, began the daily period when I considered his business capacities as seriously disturbed for the remainder of the twenty-four hours. Not that he was absolutely idle, or averse to business then; far from it. The difficulty was, he was apt to be altogether too energetic. There was a strange, inflamed, flurried, flighty recklessness of activity about him. He would be incautious in dipping his pen into his inkstand. All his blots upon my documents, were dropped there after twelve o'clock, meridian. Indeed, not only would he be reckless and sadly given to making blots in the afternoon, but some days he went further, and was rather noisy. At such times, too, his face flamed with augmented blazonry, as if cannel coal had been heaped on anthracite. He made an unpleasant racket with his chair; spilled his sand-box; in mending his pens, impatiently split them all to pieces, and threw them on the floor in a sudden passion; stood up and leaned over his table, boxing his papers about in a most indecorous manner, very sad to behold in an elderly man like him. Nevertheless, as he was in many ways a most valuable person to me, and all the time before twelve o'clock, meridian, was the quickest, steadiest creature too, accomplishing a great deal of work in a style not easy to be matched—for these reasons, I was willing to overlook his eccentricities, though indeed, occasionally, I remonstrated with him. I did this very gently, however, because, though the civilest, nay, the blandest and most reverential of men in the morning, yet in the afternoon he was disposed, upon provocation, to be slightly rash with his tongue, in fact, insolent. Now, valuing his morning services as I did, and resolved not to lose them; yet, at the same time made uncomfortable by his inflamed ways after twelve o'clock; and being a man of peace, unwilling by my admonitions to call forth unseemly retorts from him; I took upon me, one Saturday noon (he was always worse on Saturdays), to hint to him, very kindly, that perhaps now that he was growing old, it might be well to abridge his labors; in short, he need not come to my chambers after twelve o'clock, but, dinner over, had best go home to his lodgings and rest himself till teatime. But no; he insisted upon his afternoon devotions. His countenance became intolerably fervid, as he oratorically assured me—gesticulating with a long ruler at the other end of the room—that if his services in the morning were useful, how indispensable, then, in the afternoon?"With submission, sir," said Turkey on this occasion, "I consider myself your right-hand man. In the morning I but marshal and deploy my columns; but in the afternoon I put myself at their head, and gallantly charge the foe, thus!"—and he made a violent thrust with the ruler."But the blots, Turkey," intimated I."True,—but, with submission, sir, behold these hairs! I am getting old. Surely, sir, a blot or two of a warm afternoon is not to be severely urged against gray hairs. Old age—even if it blot the page—is honorable. With submission, sir, we both are getting old."This appeal to my fellow-feeling was hardly to be resisted. At all events, I saw that go he would not. So I made up my mind to let him stay, resolving, nevertheless, to see to it, that during the afternoon he had to do with my less important papers.Nippers, the second on my list, was a whiskered, sallow, and, upon the whole, rather piratical-looking young man of about five and twenty. I always deemed him the victim of two evil powers—ambition and indigestion. The ambition was evinced by a certain impatience of the duties of a mere copyist, an unwarrantable usurpation of strictly professional affairs, such as the original drawing up of legal documents. The indigestion seemed betokened in an occasional nervous testiness and grinning irritability, causing the teeth to audibly grind together over mistakes committed in copying; unnecessary maledictions, hissed, rather than spoken, in the heat of business; and especially by a continual discontent with the height of the table where he worked. Though of a very ingenious mechanical turn, Nippers could never get this table to suit him. He put chips under it, blocks of various sorts, bits of pasteboard, and at last went so far as to attempt an exquisite adjustment by final pieces of folded blotting paper. But no invention would answer. If, for the sake of easing his back, he brought the table lid at a sharp angle well up towards his chin, and wrote there like a man using the steep roof of a Dutch house for his desk:—then he declared that it stopped the circulation in his arms. If now he lowered the table to his waistbands, and stooped over it in writing, then there was a sore aching in his back. In short, the truth of the matter was, Nippers knew not what he wanted. Or, if he wanted any thing, it was to be rid of a scrivener's table altogether. Among the manifestations of his diseased ambition was a fondness he had for receiving visits from certain ambiguous-looking fellows in seedy coats, whom he called his clients. Indeed I was aware that not only was he, at times, considerable of a ward-politician, but he occasionally did a little business at the Justices' courts, and was not unknown on the steps of the Tombs. I have good reason to believe, however, that one individual who called upon him at my chambers, and who, with a grand air, he insisted was his client, was no other than a dun, and the alleged title-deed, a bill. But with all his failings, and the annoyances he caused me, Nippers, like his compatriot Turkey, was a very useful man to me; wrote a neat, swift hand; and, when he chose, was not deficient in a gentlemanly sort of deportment. Added to this, he always dressed in a gentlemanly sort of way; and so, incidentally, reflected credit upon my chambers. Whereas with respect to Turkey, I had much ado to keep him from being a reproach to me. His clothes were apt to look oily and smell of eating-houses. He wore his pantaloons very loose and baggy in summer. His coats were execrable; his hat not to be handled. But while the hat was a thing of indifference to me, inasmuch as his natural civility and deference, as a dependent Englishman, always led him to doff it the moment he entered the room, yet his coat was another matter. Concerning his coats, I reasoned with him; but with no effect. The truth was, I suppose, that a man of so small an income, could not afford to sport such a lustrous face and a lustrous coat at one and the same time. As Nippers once observed, Turkey's money went chiefly for red ink. One winter day I presented Turkey with a highly-respectable looking coat of my own, a padded gray coat, of a most comfortable warmth, and which buttoned straight up from the knee to the neck. I thought Turkey would appreciate the favor, and abate his rashness and obstreperousness of afternoons. But no. I verily believe that buttoning himself up in so downy and blanket-like a coat had a pernicious effect upon him; upon the same principle that too much oats are bad for horses. In fact, precisely as a rash, restive horse is said to feel his oats, so Turkey felt his coat. It made him insolent. He was a man whom prosperity harmed.Though concerning the self-indulgent habits of Turkey I had my own private surmises, yet touching Nippers I was well persuaded that whatever might by his faults in other respects, he was, at least, a temperate young man. But indeed, nature herself seemed to have been his vintner, and at his birth charged him so thoroughly with an irritable, brandy-like disposition, that all subsequent potations were needless. When I consider how, amid the stillness of my chambers, Nippers would sometimes impatiently rise from his seat, and stooping over his table, spread his arms wide apart, seize the whole desk, and move it, and jerk it, with a grim, grinding motion on the floor, as if the table were a perverse voluntary agent, intent on thwarting and vexing him; I plainly perceive that for Nippers, brandy and water were altogether superfluous.It was fortunate for me that, owing to its peculiar cause—indigestion—the irritability and consequent nervousness of Nippers, were mainly observable in the morning, while in the afternoon he was comparatively mild. So that Turkey's paroxysms only coming on about twelve o'clock, I never had to do with their eccentricities at one time. Their fits relieved each other like guards. When Nippers' was on, Turkey's was off; and vice versa. This was a good natural arrangement under the circumstances.Ginger Nut, the third on my list, was a lad some twelve years old. His father was a carman, ambitious of seeing his son on the bench instead of a cart, before he died. So he sent him to my office as student at law, errand boy, and cleaner and sweeper, at the rate of one dollar a week. He had a little desk to himself, but he did not use it much. Upon inspection, the drawer exhibited a great array of the shells of various sorts of nuts. Indeed, to this quick-witted youth the whole noble science of the law was contained in a nut-shell. Not the least among the employments of Ginger Nut, as well as one which he discharged with the most alacrity, was his duty as cake and apple purveyor for Turkey and Nippers. Copying law papers being proverbially dry, husky sort of business, my two scriveners were fain to moisten their mouths very often with Spitzenbergs to be had at the numerous stalls nigh the Custom House and Post Office. Also, they sent Ginger Nut very frequently for that peculiar cake—small, flat, round, and very spicy—after which he had been named by them. Of a cold morning when business was but dull, Turkey would gobble up scores of these cakes, as if they were mere wafers—indeed they sell them at the rate of six or eight for a penny—the scrape of his pen blending with the crunching of the crisp particles in his mouth. Of all the fiery afternoon blunders and flurried rashnesses of Turkey, was his once moistening a ginger-cake between his lips, and clapping it on to a mortgage for a seal. I came within an ace of dismissing him then. But he mollified me by making an oriental bow, and saying—"With submission, sir, it was generous of me to find you in stationery on my own account."Now my original business—that of a conveyancer and title hunter, and drawer-up of recondite documents of all sorts—was considerably increased by receiving the master's office. There was now great work for scriveners. Not only must I push the clerks already with me, but I must have additional help. In answer to my advertisement, a motionless young man one morning, stood upon my office threshold, the door being open, for it was summer. I can see that figure now—pallidly neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn! It was Bartleby.After a few words touching his qualifications, I engaged him, glad to have among my corps of copyists a man of so singularly sedate an aspect, which I thought might operate beneficially upon the flighty temper of Turkey, and the fiery one of Nippers.I should have stated before that ground glass folding-doors divided my premises into two parts, one of which was occupied by my scriveners, the other by myself. According to my humor I threw open these doors, or closed them. I resolved to assign Bartleby a corner by the folding-doors, but on my side of them, so as to have this quiet man within easy call, in case any trifling thing was to be done. I placed his desk close up to a small side-window in that part of the room, a window which originally had afforded a lateral view of certain grimy back-yards and bricks, but which, owing to subsequent erections, commanded at present no view at all, though it gave some light. Within three feet of the panes was a wall, and the light came down from far above, between two lofty buildings, as from a very small opening in a dome. Still further to a satisfactory arrangement, I procured a high green folding screen, which might entirely isolate Bartleby from my sight, though not remove him from my voice. And thus, in a manner, privacy and society were conjoined.At first Bartleby did an extraordinary quantity of writing. As if long famishing for something to copy, he seemed to gorge himself on my documents. There was no pause for digestion. He ran a day and night line, copying by sun-light and by candle-light. I should have been quite delighted with his application, had he been cheerfully industrious. But he wrote on silently, palely, mechanically.It is, of course, an indispensable part of a scrivener's business to verify the accuracy of his copy, word by word. Where there are two or more scriveners in an office, they assist each other in this examination, one reading from the copy, the other holding the original. It is a very dull, wearisome, and lethargic affair. I can readily imagine that to some sanguine temperaments it would be altogether intolerable. For example, I cannot credit that the mettlesome poet Byron would have contentedly sat down with Bartleby to examine a law document of, say five hundred pages, closely written in a crimpy hand.Now and then, in the haste of business, it had been my habit to assist in comparing some brief document myself, calling Turkey or Nippers for this purpose. One object I had in placing Bartleby so handy to me behind the screen, was to avail myself of his services on such trivial occasions. It was on the third day, I think, of his being with me, and before any necessity had arisen for having his own writing examined, that, being much hurried to complete a small affair I had in hand, I abruptly called to Bartleby. In my haste and natural expectancy of instant compliance, I sat with my head bent over the original on my desk, and my right hand sideways, and somewhat nervously extended with the copy, so that immediately upon emerging from his retreat, Bartleby might snatch it and proceed to business without the least delay.In this very attitude did I sit when I called to him, rapidly stating what it was I wanted him to do—namely, to examine a small paper with me. Imagine my surprise, nay, my consternation, when without moving from his privacy, Bartleby in a singularly mild, firm voice, replied, "I would prefer not to."I sat awhile in perfect silence, rallying my stunned faculties. Immediately it occurred to me that my ears had deceived me, or Bartleby had entirely misunderstood my meaning. I repeated my request in the clearest tone I could assume. But in quite as clear a one came the previous reply, "I would prefer not to.""Prefer not to," echoed I, rising in high excitement, and crossing the room with a stride. "What do you mean? Are you moon-struck? I want you to help me compare this sheet here—take it," and I thrust it towards him."I would prefer not to," said he.I looked at him steadfastly. His face was leanly composed; his gray eye dimly calm. Not a wrinkle of agitation rippled him. Had there been the least uneasiness, anger, impatience or impertinence in his manner; in other words, had there been any thing ordinarily human about him, doubtless I should have violently dismissed him from the premises. But as it was, I should have as soon thought of turning my pale plaster-of-paris bust of Cicero out of doors. I stood gazing at him awhile, as he went on with his own writing, and then reseated myself at my desk. This is very strange, thought I. What had one best do? But my business hurried me. I concluded to forget the matter for the present, reserving it for my future leisure. So calling Nippers from the other room, the paper was speedily examined.A few days after this, Bartleby concluded four lengthy documents, being quadruplicates of a week's testimony taken before me in my High Court of Chancery. It became necessary to examine them. It was an important suit, and great accuracy was imperative. Having all things arranged I called Turkey, Nippers and Ginger Nut from the next room, meaning to place the four copies in the hands of my four clerks, while I should read from the original. Accordingly Turkey, Nippers and Ginger Nut had taken their seats in a row, each with his document in hand, when I called to Bartleby to join this interesting group."Bartleby! quick, I am waiting."I heard a slow scrape of his chair legs on the uncarpeted floor, and soon he appeared standing at the entrance of his hermitage."What is wanted?" said he mildly."The copies, the copies," said I hurriedly. "We are going to examine them. There"—and I held towards him the fourth quadruplicate."I would prefer not to," he said, and gently disappeared behind the screen.For a few moments I was turned into a pillar of salt, standing at the head of my seated column of clerks. Recovering myself, I advanced towards the screen, and demanded the reason for such extraordinary conduct."Why do you refuse?""I would prefer not to."With any other man I should have flown outright into a dreadful passion, scorned all further words, and thrust him ignominiously from my presence. But there was something about Bartleby that not only strangely disarmed me, but in a wonderful manner touched and disconcerted me. I began to reason with him."These are your own copies we are about to examine. It is labor saving to you, because one examination will answer for your four papers. It is common usage. Every copyist is bound to help examine his copy. Is it not so? Will you not speak? Answer!""I prefer not to," he replied in a flute-like tone. It seemed to me that while I had been addressing him, he carefully revolved every statement that I made; fully comprehended the meaning; could not gainsay the irresistible conclusions; but, at the same time, some paramount consideration prevailed with him to reply as he did."You are decided, then, not to comply with my request—a request made according to common usage and common sense?"He briefly gave me to understand that on that point my judgment was sound. Yes: his decision was irreversible.It is not seldom the case that when a man is browbeaten in some unprecedented and violently unreasonable way, he begins to stagger in his own plainest faith. He begins, as it were, vaguely to surmise that, wonderful as it may be, all the justice and all the reason is on the other side. Accordingly, if any disinterested persons are present, he turns to them for some reinforcement for his own faltering mind."Turkey," said I, "what do you think of this? Am I not right?""With submission, sir," said Turkey, with his blandest tone, "I think that you are.""Nippers," said I, "what do you think of it?""I think I should kick him out of the office."(The reader of nice perceptions will here perceive that, it being morning, Turkey's answer is couched in polite and tranquil terms, but Nippers replies in ill-tempered ones. Or, to repeat a previous sentence, Nippers' ugly mood was on duty and Turkey's off.)"Ginger Nut," said I, willing to enlist the smallest suffrage in my behalf, "what do you think of it?""I think, sir, he's a little luny," replied Ginger Nut with a grin."You hear what they say," said I, turning towards the screen, "come forth and do your duty."But he vouchsafed no reply. I pondered a moment in sore perplexity. But once more business hurried me. I determined again to postpone the consideration of this dilemma to my future leisure. With a little trouble we made out to examine the papers without Bartleby, though at every page or two, Turkey deferentially dropped his opinion that this proceeding was quite out of the common; while Nippers, twitching in his chair with a dyspeptic nervousness, ground out between his set teeth occasional hissing maledictions against the stubborn oaf behind the screen. And for his (Nippers') part, this was the first and the last time he would do another man's business without pay.Meanwhile Bartleby sat in his hermitage, oblivious to every thing but his own peculiar business there.Some days passed, the scrivener being employed upon another lengthy work. His late remarkable conduct led me to regard his ways narrowly. I observed that he never went to dinner; indeed that he never went any where. As yet I had never of my personal knowledge known him to be outside of my office. He was a perpetual sentry in the corner. At about eleven o'clock though, in the morning, I noticed that Ginger Nut would advance toward the opening in Bartleby's screen, as if silently beckoned thither by a gesture invisible to me where I sat. The boy would then leave the office jingling a few pence, and reappear with a handful of ginger-nuts which he delivered in the hermitage, receiving two of the cakes for his trouble.He lives, then, on ginger-nuts, thought I; never eats a dinner, properly speaking; he must be a vegetarian then; but no; he never eats even vegetables, he eats nothing but ginger-nuts. My mind then ran on in reveries concerning the probable effects upon the human constitution of living entirely on ginger-nuts. Ginger-nuts are so called because they contain ginger as one of their peculiar constituents, and the final flavoring one. Now what was ginger? A hot, spicy thing. Was Bartleby hot and spicy? Not at all. Ginger, then, had no effect upon Bartleby. Probably he preferred it should have none.Nothing so aggravates an earnest person as a passive resistance. If the individual so resisted be of a not inhumane temper, and the resisting one perfectly harmless in his passivity; then, in the better moods of the former, he will endeavor charitably to construe to his imagination what proves impossible to be solved by his judgment. Even so, for the most part, I regarded Bartleby and his ways. Poor fellow! thought I, he means no mischief; it is plain he intends no insolence; his aspect sufficiently evinces that his eccentricities are involuntary. He is useful to me. I can get along with him. If I turn him away, the chances are he will fall in with some less indulgent employer, and then he will be rudely treated, and perhaps driven forth miserably to starve. Yes. Here I can cheaply purchase a delicious self-approval. To befriend Bartleby; to humor him in his strange willfulness, will cost me little or nothing, while I lay up in my soul what will eventually prove a sweet morsel for my conscience. But this mood was not invariable with me. The passiveness of Bartleby sometimes irritated me. I felt strangely goaded on to encounter him in new opposition, to elicit some angry spark from him answerable to my own. But indeed I might as well have essayed to strike fire with my knuckles against a bit of Windsor soap. But one afternoon the evil impulse in me mastered me, and the following little scene ensued:"Bartleby," said I, "when those papers are all copied, I will compare them with you.""I would prefer not to.""How? Surely you do not mean to persist in that mulish vagary?"No answer.I threw open the folding-doors near by, and turning upon Turkey andNippers, exclaimed in an excited manner—"He says, a second time, he won't examine his papers. What do you think of it, Turkey?"It was afternoon, be it remembered. Turkey sat glowing like a brass boiler, his bald head steaming, his hands reeling among his blotted papers."Think of it?" roared Turkey; "I think I'll just step behind his screen, and black his eyes for him!"So saying, Turkey rose to his feet and threw his arms into a pugilistic position. He was hurrying away to make good his promise, when I detained him, alarmed at the effect of incautiously rousing Turkey's combativeness after dinner."Sit down, Turkey," said I, "and hear what Nippers has to say. What do you think of it, Nippers? Would I not be justified in immediately dismissing Bartleby?""Excuse me, that is for you to decide, sir. I think his conduct quite unusual, and indeed unjust, as regards Turkey and myself. But it may only be a passing whim.""Ah," exclaimed I, "you have strangely changed your mind then—you speak very gently of him now.""All beer," cried Turkey; "gentleness is effects of beer—Nippers and I dined together to-day. You see how gentle I am, sir. Shall I go and black his eyes?""You refer to Bartleby, I suppose. No, not to-day, Turkey," I replied; "pray, put up your fists."I closed the doors, and again advanced towards Bartleby. I felt additional incentives tempting me to my fate. I burned to be rebelled against again. I remembered that Bartleby never left the office."Bartleby," said I, "Ginger Nut is away; just step round to the Post Office, won't you? (it was but a three minute walk,) and see if there is any thing for me.""I would prefer not to.""You will not?""I prefer not."I staggered to my desk, and sat there in a deep study. My blind inveteracy returned. Was there any other thing in which I could procure myself to be ignominiously repulsed by this lean, penniless wight?—my hired clerk? What added thing is there, perfectly reasonable, that he will be sure to refuse to do?"Bartleby!"No answer."Bartleby," in a louder tone.No answer."Bartleby," I roared.Like a very ghost, agreeably to the laws of magical invocation, at the third summons, he appeared at the entrance of his hermitage."Go to the next room, and tell Nippers to come to me.""I prefer not to," he respectfully and slowly said, and mildly disappeared."Very good, Bartleby," said I, in a quiet sort of serenely severe self-possessed tone, intimating the unalterable purpose of some terrible retribution very close at hand. At the moment I half intended something of the kind. But upon the whole, as it was drawing towards my dinner-hour, I thought it best to put on my hat and walk home for the day, suffering much from perplexity and distress of mind.Shall I acknowledge it? The conclusion of this whole business was, that it soon became a fixed fact of my chambers, that a pale young scrivener, by the name of Bartleby, and a desk there; that he copied for me at the usual rate of four cents a folio (one hundred words); but he was permanently exempt from examining the work done by him, that duty being transferred to Turkey and Nippers, one of compliment doubtless to their superior acuteness; moreover, said Bartleby was never on any account to be dispatched on the most trivial errand of any sort; and that even if entreated to take upon him such a matter, it was generally understood that he would prefer not to—in other words, that he would refuse pointblank.As days passed on, I became considerably reconciled to Bartleby. His steadiness, his freedom from all dissipation, his incessant industry (except when he chose to throw himself into a standing revery behind his screen), his great, stillness, his unalterableness of demeanor under all circumstances, made him a valuable acquisition. One prime thing was this,—he was always there;—first in the morning, continually through the day, and the last at night. I had a singular confidence in his honesty. I felt my most precious papers perfectly safe in his hands. Sometimes to be sure I could not, for the very soul of me, avoid falling into sudden spasmodic passions with him. For it was exceeding difficult to bear in mind all the time those strange peculiarities, privileges, and unheard of exemptions, forming the tacit stipulations on Bartleby's part under which he remained in my office. Now and then, in the eagerness of dispatching pressing business, I would inadvertently summon Bartleby, in a short, rapid tone, to put his finger, say, on the incipient tie of a bit of red tape with which I was about compressing some papers. Of course, from behind the screen the usual answer, "I prefer not to," was sure to come; and then, how could a human creature with the common infirmities of our nature, refrain from bitterly exclaiming upon such perverseness—such unreasonableness. However, every added repulse of this sort which I received only tended to lessen the probability of my repeating the inadvertence.Here it must be said, that according to the custom of most legal gentlemen occupying chambers in densely-populated law buildings, there were several keys to my door. One was kept by a woman residing in the attic, which person weekly scrubbed and daily swept and dusted my apartments. Another was kept by Turkey for convenience sake. The third I sometimes carried in my own pocket. The fourth I knew not who had.Now, one Sunday morning I happened to go to Trinity Church, to hear a celebrated preacher, and finding myself rather early on the ground, I thought I would walk around to my chambers for a while. Luckily I had my key with me; but upon applying it to the lock, I found it resisted by something inserted from the inside. Quite surprised, I called out; when to my consternation a key was turned from within; and thrusting his lean visage at me, and holding the door ajar, the apparition of Bartleby appeared, in his shirt sleeves, and otherwise in a strangely tattered dishabille, saying quietly that he was sorry, but he was deeply engaged just then, and—preferred not admitting me at present. In a brief word or two, he moreover added, that perhaps I had better walk round the block two or three times, and by that time he would probably have concluded his affairs.Now, the utterly unsurmised appearance of Bartleby, tenanting my law-chambers of a Sunday morning, with his cadaverously gentlemanly nonchalance, yet withal firm and self-possessed, had such a strange effect upon me, that incontinently I slunk away from my own door, and did as desired. But not without sundry twinges of impotent rebellion against the mild effrontery of this unaccountable scrivener. Indeed, it was his wonderful mildness chiefly, which not only disarmed me, but unmanned me, as it were. For I consider that one, for the time, is a sort of unmanned when he tranquilly permits his hired clerk to dictate to him, and order him away from his own premises. Furthermore, I was full of uneasiness as to what Bartleby could possibly be doing in my office in his shirt sleeves, and in an otherwise dismantled condition of a Sunday morning. Was any thing amiss going on? Nay, that was out of the question. It was not to be thought of for a moment that Bartleby was an immoral person. But what could he be doing there?—copying? Nay again, whatever might be his eccentricities, Bartleby was an eminently decorous person. He would be the last man to sit down to his desk in any state approaching to nudity. Besides, it was Sunday; and there was something about Bartleby that forbade the supposition that he would by any secular occupation violate the proprieties of the day.Nevertheless, my mind was not pacified; and full of a restless curiosity, at last I returned to the door. Without hindrance I inserted my key, opened it, and entered. Bartleby was not to be seen. I looked round anxiously, peeped behind his screen; but it was very plain that he was gone. Upon more closely examining the place, I surmised that for an indefinite period Bartleby must have ate, dressed, and slept in my office, and that too without plate, mirror, or bed. The cushioned seat of a rickety old sofa in one corner bore the faint impress of a lean, reclining form. Rolled away under his desk, I found a blanket; under the empty grate, a blacking box and brush; on a chair, a tin basin, with soap and a ragged towel; in a newspaper a few crumbs of ginger-nuts and a morsel of cheese. Yes, thought I, it is evident enough that Bartleby has been making his home here, keeping bachelor's hall all by himself. Immediately then the thought came sweeping across me, What miserable friendlessness and loneliness are here revealed! His poverty is great; but his solitude, how horrible! Think of it. Of a Sunday, Wall-street is deserted as Petra; and every night of every day it is an emptiness. This building too, which of week-days hums with industry and life, at nightfall echoes with sheer vacancy, and all through Sunday is forlorn. And here Bartleby makes his home; sole spectator of a solitude which he has seen all populous—a sort of innocent and transformed Marius brooding among the ruins of Carthage!For the first time in my life a feeling of overpowering stinging melancholy seized me. Before, I had never experienced aught but a not-unpleasing sadness. The bond of a common humanity now drew me irresistibly to gloom. A fraternal melancholy! For both I and Bartleby were sons of Adam. I remembered the bright silks and sparkling faces I had seen that day, in gala trim, swan-like sailing down the Mississippi of Broadway; and I contrasted them with the pallid copyist, and thought to myself, Ah, happiness courts the light, so we deem the world is gay; but misery hides aloof, so we deem that misery there is none. These sad fancyings—chimeras, doubtless, of a sick and silly brain—led on to other and more special thoughts, concerning the eccentricities of Bartleby. Presentiments of strange discoveries hovered round me. The scrivener's pale form appeared to me laid out, among uncaring strangers, in its shivering winding sheet.Suddenly I was attracted by Bartleby's closed desk, the key in open sight left in the lock.I mean no mischief, seek the gratification of no heartless curiosity, thought I; besides, the desk is mine, and its contents too, so I will make bold to look within. Every thing was methodically arranged, the papers smoothly placed. The pigeon holes were deep, and removing the files of documents, I groped into their recesses. Presently I felt something there, and dragged it out. It was an old bandanna handkerchief, heavy and knotted. I opened it, and saw it was a savings' bank.I now recalled all the quiet mysteries which I had noted in the man. I remembered that he never spoke but to answer; that though at intervals he had considerable time to himself, yet I had never seen him reading—no, not even a newspaper; that for long periods he would stand looking out, at his pale window behind the screen, upon the dead brick wall; I was quite sure he never visited any refectory or eating house; while his pale face clearly indicated that he never drank beer like Turkey, or tea and coffee even, like other men; that he never went any where in particular that I could learn; never went out for a walk, unless indeed that was the case at present; that he had declined telling who he was, or whence he came, or whether he had any relatives in the world; that though so thin and pale, he never complained of ill health. And more than all, I remembered a certain unconscious air of pallid—how shall I call it?—of pallid haughtiness, say, or rather an austere reserve about him, which had positively awed me into my tame compliance with his eccentricities, when I had feared to ask him to do the slightest incidental thing for me, even though I might know, from his long-continued motionlessness, that behind his screen he must be standing in one of those dead-wall reveries of his.Revolving all these things, and coupling them with the recently discovered fact that he made my office his constant abiding place and home, and not forgetful of his morbid moodiness; revolving all these things, a prudential feeling began to steal over me. My first emotions had been those of pure melancholy and sincerest pity; but just in proportion as the forlornness of Bartleby grew and grew to my imagination, did that same melancholy merge into fear, that pity into repulsion. So true it is, and so terrible too, that up to a certain point the thought or sight of misery enlists our best affections; but, in certain special cases, beyond that point it does not. They err who would assert that invariably this is owing to the inherent selfishness of the human heart. It rather proceeds from a certain hopelessness of remedying excessive and organic ill. To a sensitive being, pity is not seldom pain. And when at last it is perceived that such pity cannot lead to effectual succor, common sense bids the soul rid of it. What I saw that morning persuaded me that the scrivener was the victim of innate and incurable disorder. I might give alms to his body; but his body did not pain him; it was his soul that suffered, and his soul I could not reach.I did not accomplish the purpose of going to Trinity Church that morning. Somehow, the things I had seen disqualified me for the time from church-going. I walked homeward, thinking what I would do with Bartleby. Finally, I resolved upon this;—I would put certain calm questions to him the next morning, touching his history, etc., and if he declined to answer them openly and unreservedly (and I supposed he would prefer not), then to give him a twenty dollar bill over and above whatever I might owe him, and tell him his services were no longer required; but that if in any other way I could assist him, I would be happy to do so, especially if he desired to return to his native place, wherever that might be, I would willingly help to defray the expenses. Moreover, if, after reaching home, he found himself at any time in want of aid, a letter from him would be sure of a reply.The next morning came."Bartleby," said I, gently calling to him behind his screen.No reply."Bartleby," said I, in a still gentler tone, "come here; I am not going to ask you to do any thing you would prefer not to do—I simply wish to speak to you."Upon this he noiselessly slid into view."Will you tell me, Bartleby, where you were born?""I would prefer not to.""Will you tell me any thing about yourself?""I would prefer not to.""But what reasonable objection can you have to speak to me? I feel friendly towards you."He did not look at me while I spoke, but kept his glance fixed upon my bust of Cicero, which as I then sat, was directly behind me, some six inches above my head."What is your answer, Bartleby?" said I, after waiting a considerable time for a reply, during which his countenance remained immovable, only there was the faintest conceivable tremor of the white attenuated mouth."At present I prefer to give no answer," he said, and retired into his hermitage.It was rather weak in me I confess, but his manner on this occasion nettled me. Not only did there seem to lurk in it a certain calm disdain, but his perverseness seemed ungrateful, considering the undeniable good usage and indulgence he had received from me.Again I sat ruminating what I should do. Mortified as I was at his behavior, and resolved as I had been to dismiss him when I entered my offices, nevertheless I strangely felt something superstitious knocking at my heart, and forbidding me to carry out my purpose, and denouncing me for a villain if I dared to breathe one bitter word against this forlornest of mankind. At last, familiarly drawing my chair behind his screen, I sat down and said: "Bartleby, never mind then about revealing your history; but let me entreat you, as a friend, to comply as far as may be with the usages of this office. Say now you will help to examine papers to-morrow or next day: in short, say now that in a day or two you will begin to be a little reasonable:—say so, Bartleby.""At present I would prefer not to be a little reasonable," was his mildly cadaverous reply.Just then the folding-doors opened, and Nippers approached. He seemed suffering from an unusually bad night's rest, induced by severer indigestion then common. He overheard those final words of Bartleby."Prefer not, eh?" gritted Nippers—"I'd prefer him, if I were you, sir," addressing me—"I'd prefer him; I'd give him preferences, the stubborn mule! What is it, sir, pray, that he prefers not to do now?"Bartleby moved not a limb."Mr. Nippers," said I, "I'd prefer that you would withdraw for the present."Somehow, of late I had got into the way of involuntarily using this word "prefer" upon all sorts of not exactly suitable occasions. And I trembled to think that my contact with the scrivener had already and seriously affected me in a mental way. And what further and deeper aberration might it not yet produce? This apprehension had not been without efficacy in determining me to summary means.As Nippers, looking very sour and sulky, was departing, Turkey blandly and deferentially approached."With submission, sir," said he, "yesterday I was thinking about Bartleby here, and I think that if he would but prefer to take a quart of good ale every day, it would do much towards mending him, and enabling him to assist in examining his papers.""So you have got the word too," said I, slightly excited."With submission, what word, sir," asked Turkey, respectfully crowding himself into the contracted space behind the screen, and by so doing, making me jostle the scrivener. "What word, sir?""I would prefer to be left alone here," said Bartleby, as if offended at being mobbed in his privacy."That's the word, Turkey," said I—"that's it.""Oh, prefer? oh yes—queer word. I never use it myself. But, sir, asI was saying, if he would but prefer—""Turkey," interrupted I, "you will please withdraw.""Oh certainly, sir, if you prefer that I should."As he opened the folding-door to retire, Nippers at his desk caught a glimpse of me, and asked whether I would prefer to have a certain paper copied on blue paper or white. He did not in the least roguishly accent the word prefer. It was plain that it involuntarily rolled form his tongue. I thought to myself, surely I must get rid of a demented man, who already has in some degree turned the tongues, if not the heads of myself and clerks. But I thought it prudent not to break the dismission at once.The next day I noticed that Bartleby did nothing but stand at his window in his dead-wall revery. Upon asking him why he did not write, he said that he had decided upon doing no more writing."Why, how now? what next?" exclaimed I, "do no more writing?""No more.""And what is the reason?""Do you not see the reason for yourself," he indifferently replied.I looked steadfastly at him, and perceived that his eyes looked dull and glazed. Instantly it occurred to me, that his unexampled diligence in copying by his dim window for the first few weeks of his stay with me might have temporarily impaired his vision.I was touched. I said something in condolence with him. I hinted that of course he did wisely in abstaining from writing for a while; and urged him to embrace that opportunity of taking wholesome exercise in the open air. This, however, he did not do. A few days after this, my other clerks being absent, and being in a great hurry to dispatch certain letters by the mail, I thought that, having nothing else earthly to do, Bartleby would surely be less inflexible than usual, and carry these letters to the post-office. But he blankly declined. So, much to my inconvenience, I went myself.Still added days went by. Whether Bartleby's eyes improved or not, I could not say. To all appearance, I thought they did. But when I asked him if they did, he vouchsafed no answer. At all events, he would do no copying. At last, in reply to my urgings, he informed me that he had permanently given up copying."What!" exclaimed I; "suppose your eyes should get entirely well—better than ever before—would you not copy then?""I have given up copying," he answered, and slid aside.He remained as ever, a fixture in my chamber. Nay—if that were possible—he became still more of a fixture than before. What was to be done? He would do nothing in the office: why should he stay there? In plain fact, he had now become a millstone to me, not only useless as a necklace, but afflictive to bear. Yet I was sorry for him. I speak less than truth when I say that, on his own account, he occasioned me uneasiness. If he would but have named a single relative or friend, I would instantly have written, and urged their taking the poor fellow away to some convenient retreat. But he seemed alone, absolutely alone in the universe. A bit of wreck in the mid Atlantic. At length, necessities connected with my business tyrannized over all other considerations. Decently as I could, I told Bartleby that in six days' time he must unconditionally leave the office. I warned him to take measures, in the interval, for procuring some other abode. I offered to assist him in this endeavor, if he himself would but take the first step towards a removal. "And when you finally quit me, Bartleby," added I, "I shall see that you go not away entirely unprovided. Six days from this hour, remember."At the expiration of that period, I peeped behind the screen, and lo!Bartleby was there.I buttoned up my coat, balanced myself; advanced slowly towards him, touched his shoulder, and said, "The time has come; you must quit this place; I am sorry for you; here is money; but you must go.""I would prefer not," he replied, with his back still towards me."You must."He remained silent.Now I had an unbounded confidence in this man's common honesty. He had frequently restored to me sixpences and shillings carelessly dropped upon the floor, for I am apt to be very reckless in such shirt-button affairs. The proceeding then which followed will not be deemed extraordinary."Bartleby," said I, "I owe you twelve dollars on account; here are thirty-two; the odd twenty are yours.—Will you take it?" and I handed the bills towards him.But he made no motion."I will leave them here then," putting them under a weight on the table. Then taking my hat and cane and going to the door I tranquilly turned and added—"After you have removed your things from these offices, Bartleby, you will of course lock the door—since every one is now gone for the day but you—and if you please, slip your key underneath the mat, so that I may have it in the morning. I shall not see you again; so good-bye to you. If hereafter in your new place of abode I can be of any service to you, do not fail to advise me by letter. Good-bye, Bartleby, and fare you well."But he answered not a word; like the last column of some ruined temple, he remained standing mute and solitary in the middle of the otherwise deserted room.As I walked home in a pensive mood, my vanity got the better of my pity. I could not but highly plume myself on my masterly management in getting rid of Bartleby. Masterly I call it, and such it must appear to any dispassionate thinker. The beauty of my procedure seemed to consist in its perfect quietness. There was no vulgar bullying, no bravado of any sort, no choleric hectoring, and striding to and fro across the apartment, jerking out vehement commands for Bartleby to bundle himself off with his beggarly traps. Nothing of the kind. Without loudly bidding Bartleby depart—as an inferior genius might have done—I assumed the ground that depart he must; and upon that assumption built all I had to say. The more I thought over my procedure, the more I was charmed with it. Nevertheless, next morning, upon awakening, I had my doubts,—I had somehow slept off the fumes of vanity. One of the coolest and wisest hours a man has, is just after he awakes in the morning. My procedure seemed as sagacious as ever.—but only in theory. How it would prove in practice—there was the rub. It was truly a beautiful thought to have assumed Bartleby's departure; but, after all, that assumption was simply my own, and none of Bartleby's. The great point was, not whether I had assumed that he would quit me, but whether he would prefer so to do. He was more a man of preferences than assumptions.After breakfast, I walked down town, arguing the probabilities pro and con. One moment I thought it would prove a miserable failure, and Bartleby would be found all alive at my office as usual; the next moment it seemed certain that I should see his chair empty. And so I kept veering about. At the corner of Broadway and Canal-street, I saw quite an excited group of people standing in earnest conversation."I'll take odds he doesn't," said a voice as I passed."Doesn't go?—done!" said I, "put up your money."I was instinctively putting my hand in my pocket to produce my own, when I remembered that this was an election day. The words I had overheard bore no reference to Bartleby, but to the success or non-success of some candidate for the mayoralty. In my intent frame of mind, I had, as it were, imagined that all Broadway shared in my excitement, and were debating the same question with me. I passed on, very thankful that the uproar of the street screened my momentary absent-mindedness.As I had intended, I was earlier than usual at my office door. I stood listening for a moment. All was still. He must be gone. I tried the knob. The door was locked. Yes, my procedure had worked to a charm; he indeed must be vanished. Yet a certain melancholy mixed with this: I was almost sorry for my brilliant success. I was fumbling under the door mat for the key, which Bartleby was to have left there for me, when accidentally my knee knocked against a panel, producing a summoning sound, and in response a voice came to me from within—"Not yet; I am occupied."It was Bartleby.I was thunderstruck. For an instant I stood like the man who, pipe in mouth, was killed one cloudless afternoon long ago in Virginia, by a summer lightning; at his own warm open window he was killed, and remained leaning out there upon the dreamy afternoon, till some one touched him, when he fell."Not gone!" I murmured at last. But again obeying that wondrous ascendancy which the inscrutable scrivener had over me, and from which ascendancy, for all my chafing, I could not completely escape, I slowly went down stairs and out into the street, and while walking round the block, considered what I should next do in this unheard-of perplexity. Turn the man out by an actual thrusting I could not; to drive him away by calling him hard names would not do; calling in the police was an unpleasant idea; and yet, permit him to enjoy his cadaverous triumph over me,—this too I could not think of. What was to be done? or, if nothing could be done, was there any thing further that I could assume in the matter? Yes, as before I had prospectively assumed that Bartleby would depart, so now I might retrospectively assume that departed he was. In the legitimate carrying out of this assumption, I might enter my office in a great hurry, and pretending not to see Bartleby at all, walk straight against him as if he were air. Such a proceeding would in a singular degree have the appearance of a home-thrust. It was hardly possible that Bartleby could withstand such an application of the doctrine of assumptions. But upon second thoughts the success of the plan seemed rather dubious. I resolved to argue the matter over with him again."Bartleby," said I, entering the office, with a quietly severe expression, "I am seriously displeased. I am pained, Bartleby. I had thought better of you. I had imagined you of such a gentlemanly organization, that in any delicate dilemma a slight hint would have suffice—in short, an assumption. But it appears I am deceived. Why," I added, unaffectedly starting, "you have not even touched that money yet," pointing to it, just where I had left it the evening previous.He answered nothing."Will you, or will you not, quit me?" I now demanded in a sudden passion, advancing close to him."I would prefer not to quit you," he replied, gently emphasizing the not."What earthly right have you to stay here? Do you pay any rent? Do you pay my taxes? Or is this property yours?"He answered nothing."Are you ready to go on and write now? Are your eyes recovered? Could you copy a small paper for me this morning? or help examine a few lines? or step round to the post-office? In a word, will you do any thing at all, to give a coloring to your refusal to depart the premises?"He silently retired into his hermitage.I was now in such a state of nervous resentment that I thought it but prudent to check myself at present from further demonstrations. Bartleby and I were alone. I remembered the tragedy of the unfortunate Adams and the still more unfortunate Colt in the solitary office of the latter; and how poor Colt, being dreadfully incensed by Adams, and imprudently permitting himself to get wildly excited, was at unawares hurried into his fatal act—an act which certainly no man could possibly deplore more than the actor himself. Often it had occurred to me in my ponderings upon the subject, that had that altercation taken place in the public street, or at a private residence, it would not have terminated as it did. It was the circumstance of being alone in a solitary office, up stairs, of a building entirely unhallowed by humanizing domestic associations—an uncarpeted office, doubtless, of a dusty, haggard sort of appearance;—this it must have been, which greatly helped to enhance the irritable desperation of the hapless Colt.But when this old Adam of resentment rose in me and tempted me concerning Bartleby, I grappled him and threw him. How? Why, simply by recalling the divine injunction: "A new commandment give I unto you, that ye love one another." Yes, this it was that saved me. Aside from higher considerations, charity often operates as a vastly wise and prudent principle—a great safeguard to its possessor. Men have committed murder for jealousy's sake, and anger's sake, and hatred's sake, and selfishness' sake, and spiritual pride's sake; but no man that ever I heard of, ever committed a diabolical murder for sweet charity's sake. Mere self-interest, then, if no better motive can be enlisted, should, especially with high-tempered men, prompt all beings to charity and philanthropy. At any rate, upon the occasion in question, I strove to drown my exasperated feelings towards the scrivener by benevolently construing his conduct. Poor fellow, poor fellow! thought I, he don't mean any thing; and besides, he has seen hard times, and ought to be indulged.I endeavored also immediately to occupy myself, and at the same time to comfort my despondency. I tried to fancy that in the course of the morning, at such time as might prove agreeable to him. Bartleby, of his own free accord, would emerge from his hermitage, and take up some decided line of march in the direction of the door. But no. Half-past twelve o'clock came; Turkey began to glow in the face, overturn his inkstand, and become generally obstreperous; Nippers abated down into quietude and courtesy; Ginger Nut munched his noon apple; and Bartleby remained standing at his window in one of his profoundest dead-wall reveries. Will it be credited? Ought I to acknowledge it? That afternoon I left the office without saying one further word to him.Some days now passed, during which, at leisure intervals I looked a little into "Edwards on the Will," and "Priestly on Necessity." Under the circumstances, those books induced a salutary feeling. Gradually I slid into the persuasion that these troubles of mine touching the scrivener, had been all predestinated from eternity, and Bartleby was billeted upon me for some mysterious purpose of an all-wise Providence, which it was not for a mere mortal like me to fathom. Yes, Bartleby, stay there behind your screen, thought I; I shall persecute you no more; you are harmless and noiseless as any of these old chairs; in short, I never feel so private as when I know you are here. At last I see it, I feel it; I penetrate to the predestinated purpose of my life. I am content. Others may have loftier parts to enact; but my mission in this world, Bartleby, is to furnish you with office-room for such period as you may see fit to remain.I believe that this wise and blessed frame of mind would have continued with me, had it not been for the unsolicited and uncharitable remarks obtruded upon me by my professional friends who visited the rooms. But thus it often is, that the constant friction of illiberal minds wears out at last the best resolves of the more generous. Though to be sure, when I reflected upon it, it was not strange that people entering my office should be struck by the peculiar aspect of the unaccountable Bartleby, and so be tempted to throw out some sinister observations concerning him. Sometimes an attorney having business with me, and calling at my office and finding no one but the scrivener there, would undertake to obtain some sort of precise information from him touching my whereabouts; but without heeding his idle talk, Bartleby would remain standing immovable in the middle of the room. So after contemplating him in that position for a time, the attorney would depart, no wiser than he came.Also, when a Reference was going on, and the room full of lawyers and witnesses and business was driving fast; some deeply occupied legal gentleman present, seeing Bartleby wholly unemployed, would request him to run round to his (the legal gentleman's) office and fetch some papers for him. Thereupon, Bartleby would tranquilly decline, and yet remain idle as before. Then the lawyer would give a great stare, and turn to me. And what could I say? At last I was made aware that all through the circle of my professional acquaintance, a whisper of wonder was running round, having reference to the strange creature I kept at my office. This worried me very much. And as the idea came upon me of his possibly turning out a long-lived man, and keep occupying my chambers, and denying my authority; and perplexing my visitors; and scandalizing my professional reputation; and casting a general gloom over the premises; keeping soul and body together to the last upon his savings (for doubtless he spent but half a dime a day), and in the end perhaps outlive me, and claim possession of my office by right of his perpetual occupancy: as all these dark anticipations crowded upon me more and more, and my friends continually intruded their relentless remarks upon the apparition in my room; a great change was wrought in me. I resolved to gather all my faculties together, and for ever rid me of this intolerable incubus.Ere revolving any complicated project, however, adapted to this end, I first simply suggested to Bartleby the propriety of his permanent departure. In a calm and serious tone, I commended the idea to his careful and mature consideration. But having taken three days to meditate upon it, he apprised me that his original determination remained the same in short, that he still preferred to abide with me.What shall I do? I now said to myself, buttoning up my coat to the last button. What shall I do? what ought I to do? what does conscience say I should do with this man, or rather ghost. Rid myself of him, I must; go, he shall. But how? You will not thrust him, the poor, pale, passive mortal,—you will not thrust such a helpless creature out of your door? you will not dishonor yourself by such cruelty? No, I will not, I cannot do that. Rather would I let him live and die here, and then mason up his remains in the wall. What then will you do? For all your coaxing, he will not budge. Bribes he leaves under your own paperweight on your table; in short, it is quite plain that he prefers to cling to you.Then something severe, something unusual must be done. What! surely you will not have him collared by a constable, and commit his innocent pallor to the common jail? And upon what ground could you procure such a thing to be done?—a vagrant, is he? What! he a vagrant, a wanderer, who refuses to budge? It is because he will not be a vagrant, then, that you seek to count him as a vagrant. That is too absurd. No visible means of support: there I have him. Wrong again: for indubitably he does support himself, and that is the only unanswerable proof that any man can show of his possessing the means so to do. No more then. Since he will not quit me, I must quit him. I will change my offices; I will move elsewhere; and give him fair notice, that if I find him on my new premises I will then proceed against him as a common trespasser.Acting accordingly, next day I thus addressed him: "I find these chambers too far from the City Hall; the air is unwholesome. In a word, I propose to remove my offices next week, and shall no longer require your services. I tell you this now, in order that you may seek another place."He made no reply, and nothing more was said.On the appointed day I engaged carts and men, proceeded to my chambers, and having but little furniture, every thing was removed in a few hours. Throughout, the scrivener remained standing behind the screen, which I directed to be removed the last thing. It was withdrawn; and being folded up like a huge folio, left him the motionless occupant of a naked room. I stood in the entry watching him a moment, while something from within me upbraided me.I re-entered, with my hand in my pocket—and—and my heart in my mouth."Good-bye, Bartleby; I am going—good-bye, and God some way bless you; and take that," slipping something in his hand. But it dropped upon the floor, and then,—strange to say—I tore myself from him whom I had so longed to be rid of.Established in my new quarters, for a day or two I kept the door locked, and started at every footfall in the passages. When I returned to my rooms after any little absence, I would pause at the threshold for an instant, and attentively listen, ere applying my key. But these fears were needless. Bartleby never came nigh me.I thought all was going well, when a perturbed looking stranger visited me, inquiring whether I was the person who had recently occupied rooms at No.—Wall-street.Full of forebodings, I replied that I was."Then sir," said the stranger, who proved a lawyer, "you are responsible for the man you left there. He refuses to do any copying; he refuses to do any thing; he says he prefers not to; and he refuses to quit the premises.""I am very sorry, sir," said I, with assumed tranquility, but an inward tremor, "but, really, the man you allude to is nothing to me—he is no relation or apprentice of mine, that you should hold me responsible for him.""In mercy's name, who is he?""I certainly cannot inform you. I know nothing about him. Formerly I employed him as a copyist; but he has done nothing for me now for some time past.""I shall settle him then,—good morning, sir."Several days passed, and I heard nothing more; and though I often felt a charitable prompting to call at the place and see poor Bartleby, yet a certain squeamishness of I know not what withheld me.All is over with him, by this time, thought I at last, when through another week no further intelligence reached me. But coming to my room the day after, I found several persons waiting at my door in a high state of nervous excitement."That's the man—here he comes," cried the foremost one, whom I recognized as the lawyer who had previously called upon me alone."You must take him away, sir, at once," cried a portly person among them, advancing upon me, and whom I knew to be the landlord of No.—Wall-street. "These gentlemen, my tenants, cannot stand it any longer; Mr. B—" pointing to the lawyer, "has turned him out of his room, and he now persists in haunting the building generally, sitting upon the banisters of the stairs by day, and sleeping in the entry by night. Every body is concerned; clients are leaving the offices; some fears are entertained of a mob; something you must do, and that without delay."Aghast at this torrent, I fell back before it, and would fain have locked myself in my new quarters. In vain I persisted that Bartleby was nothing to me—no more than to any one else. In vain:—I was the last person known to have any thing to do with him, and they held me to the terrible account. Fearful then of being exposed in the papers (as one person present obscurely threatened) I considered the matter, and at length said, that if the lawyer would give me a confidential interview with the scrivener, in his (the lawyer's) own room, I would that afternoon strive my best to rid them of the nuisance they complained of.Going up stairs to my old haunt, there was Bartleby silently sitting upon the banister at the landing."What are you doing here, Bartleby?" said I."Sitting upon the banister," he mildly replied.I motioned him into the lawyer's room, who then left us."Bartleby," said I, "are you aware that you are the cause of great tribulation to me, by persisting in occupying the entry after being dismissed from the office?"No answer."Now one of two things must take place. Either you must do something, or something must be done to you. Now what sort of business would you like to engage in? Would you like to re-engage in copying for some one?""No; I would prefer not to make any change.""Would you like a clerkship in a dry-goods store?""There is too much confinement about that. No, I would not like a clerkship; but I am not particular.""Too much confinement," I cried, "why you keep yourself confined all the time!""I would prefer not to take a clerkship," he rejoined, as if to settle that little item at once."How would a bar-tender's business suit you? There is no trying of the eyesight in that.""I would not like it at all; though, as I said before, I am not particular."His unwonted wordiness inspirited me. I returned to the charge."Well then, would you like to travel through the country collecting bills for the merchants? That would improve your health.""No, I would prefer to be doing something else.""How then would going as a companion to Europe, to entertain some young gentleman with your conversation,—how would that suit you?""Not at all. It does not strike me that there is any thing definite about that. I like to be stationary. But I am not particular.""Stationary you shall be then," I cried, now losing all patience, and for the first time in all my exasperating connection with him fairly flying into a passion. "If you do not go away from these premises before night, I shall feel bound—indeed I am bound—to—to—to quit the premises myself!" I rather absurdly concluded, knowing not with what possible threat to try to frighten his immobility into compliance. Despairing of all further efforts, I was precipitately leaving him, when a final thought occurred to me—one which had not been wholly unindulged before."Bartleby," said I, in the kindest tone I could assume under such exciting circumstances, "will you go home with me now—not to my office, but my dwelling—and remain there till we can conclude upon some convenient arrangement for you at our leisure? Come, let us start now, right away.""No: at present I would prefer not to make any change at all."I answered nothing; but effectually dodging every one by the suddenness and rapidity of my flight, rushed from the building, ran up Wall-street towards Broadway, and jumping into the first omnibus was soon removed from pursuit. As soon as tranquility returned I distinctly perceived that I had now done all that I possibly could, both in respect to the demands of the landlord and his tenants, and with regard to my own desire and sense of duty, to benefit Bartleby, and shield him from rude persecution. I now strove to be entirely care-free and quiescent; and my conscience justified me in the attempt; though indeed it was not so successful as I could have wished. So fearful was I of being again hunted out by the incensed landlord and his exasperated tenants, that, surrendering my business to Nippers, for a few days I drove about the upper part of the town and through the suburbs, in my rockaway; crossed over to Jersey City and Hoboken, and paid fugitive visits to Manhattanville and Astoria. In fact I almost lived in my rockaway for the time.When again I entered my office, lo, a note from the landlord lay upon the desk. I opened it with trembling hands. It informed me that the writer had sent to the police, and had Bartleby removed to the Tombs as a vagrant. Moreover, since I knew more about him than any one else, he wished me to appear at that place, and make a suitable statement of the facts. These tidings had a conflicting effect upon me. At first I was indignant; but at last almost approved. The landlord's energetic, summary disposition had led him to adopt a procedure which I do not think I would have decided upon myself; and yet as a last resort, under such peculiar circumstances, it seemed the only plan.As I afterwards learned, the poor scrivener, when told that he must be conducted to the Tombs, offered not the slightest obstacle, but in his pale unmoving way, silently acquiesced.Some of the compassionate and curious bystanders joined the party; and headed by one of the constables arm in arm with Bartleby, the silent procession filed its way through all the noise, and heat, and joy of the roaring thoroughfares at noon.The same day I received the note I went to the Tombs, or to speak more properly, the Halls of Justice. Seeking the right officer, I stated the purpose of my call, and was informed that the individual I described was indeed within. I then assured the functionary that Bartleby was a perfectly honest man, and greatly to be compassionated, however unaccountably eccentric. I narrated all I knew, and closed by suggesting the idea of letting him remain in as indulgent confinement as possible till something less harsh might be done—though indeed I hardly knew what. At all events, if nothing else could be decided upon, the alms-house must receive him. I then begged to have an interview.Being under no disgraceful charge, and quite serene and harmless in all his ways, they had permitted him freely to wander about the prison, and especially in the inclosed grass-platted yard thereof. And so I found him there, standing all alone in the quietest of the yards, his face towards a high wall, while all around, from the narrow slits of the jail windows, I thought I saw peering out upon him the eyes of murderers and thieves."Bartleby!""I know you," he said, without looking round,—"and I want nothing to say to you.""It was not I that brought you here, Bartleby," said I, keenly pained at his implied suspicion. "And to you, this should not be so vile a place. Nothing reproachful attaches to you by being here. And see, it is not so sad a place as one might think. Look, there is the sky, and here is the grass.""I know where I am," he replied, but would say nothing more, and so I left him.As I entered the corridor again, a broad meat-like man, in an apron, accosted me, and jerking his thumb over his shoulder said—"Is that your friend?""Yes.""Does he want to starve? If he does, let him live on the prison fare, that's all.""Who are you?" asked I, not knowing what to make of such an unofficially speaking person in such a place."I am the grub-man. Such gentlemen as have friends here, hire me to provide them with something good to eat.""Is this so?" said I, turning to the turnkey.He said it was."Well then," said I, slipping some silver into the grub-man's hands (for so they called him). "I want you to give particular attention to my friend there; let him have the best dinner you can get. And you must be as polite to him as possible.""Introduce me, will you?" said the grub-man, looking at me with an expression which seem to say he was all impatience for an opportunity to give a specimen of his breeding.Thinking it would prove of benefit to the scrivener, I acquiesced; and asking the grub-man his name, went up with him to Bartleby."Bartleby, this is Mr. Cutlets; you will find him very useful to you.""Your sarvant, sir, your sarvant," said the grub-man, making a low salutation behind his apron. "Hope you find it pleasant here, sir;—spacious grounds—cool apartments, sir—hope you'll stay with us some time—try to make it agreeable. May Mrs. Cutlets and I have the pleasure of your company to dinner, sir, in Mrs. Cutlets' private room?""I prefer not to dine to-day," said Bartleby, turning away. "It would disagree with me; I am unused to dinners." So saying he slowly moved to the other side of the inclosure, and took up a position fronting the dead-wall."How's this?" said the grub-man, addressing me with a stare of astonishment. "He's odd, aint he?""I think he is a little deranged," said I, sadly."Deranged? deranged is it? Well now, upon my word, I thought that friend of yourn was a gentleman forger; they are always pale and genteel-like, them forgers. I can't pity'em—can't help it, sir. Did you know Monroe Edwards?" he added touchingly, and paused. Then, laying his hand pityingly on my shoulder, sighed, "he died of consumption at Sing-Sing. So you weren't acquainted with Monroe?""No, I was never socially acquainted with any forgers. But I cannot stop longer. Look to my friend yonder. You will not lose by it. I will see you again."Some few days after this, I again obtained admission to the Tombs, and went through the corridors in quest of Bartleby; but without finding him."I saw him coming from his cell not long ago," said a turnkey, "may be he's gone to loiter in the yards."So I went in that direction."Are you looking for the silent man?" said another turnkey passing me. "Yonder he lies—sleeping in the yard there. 'Tis not twenty minutes since I saw him lie down."The yard was entirely quiet. It was not accessible to the common prisoners. The surrounding walls, of amazing thickness, kept off all sounds behind them. The Egyptian character of the masonry weighed upon me with its gloom. But a soft imprisoned turf grew under foot. The heart of the eternal pyramids, it seemed, wherein, by some strange magic, through the clefts, grass-seed, dropped by birds, had sprung.Strangely huddled at the base of the wall, his knees drawn up, and lying on his side, his head touching the cold stones, I saw the wasted Bartleby. But nothing stirred. I paused; then went close up to him; stooped over, and saw that his dim eyes were open; otherwise he seemed profoundly sleeping. Something prompted me to touch him. I felt his hand, when a tingling shiver ran up my arm and down my spine to my feet.The round face of the grub-man peered upon me now. "His dinner is ready. Won't he dine to-day, either? Or does he live without dining?""Lives without dining," said I, and closed his eyes."Eh!—He's asleep, aint he?""With kings and counselors," murmured I.* * * * * * * *There would seem little need for proceeding further in this history. Imagination will readily supply the meager recital of poor Bartleby's interment. But ere parting with the reader, let me say, that if this little narrative has sufficiently interested him, to awaken curiosity as to who Bartleby was, and what manner of life he led prior to the present narrator's making his acquaintance, I can only reply, that in such curiosity I fully share, but am wholly unable to gratify it. Yet here I hardly know whether I should divulge one little item of rumor, which came to my ear a few months after the scrivener's decease. Upon what basis it rested, I could never ascertain; and hence, how true it is I cannot now tell. But inasmuch as this vague report has not been without certain strange suggestive interest to me, however sad, it may prove the same with some others; and so I will briefly mention it. The report was this: that Bartleby had been a subordinate clerk in the Dead Letter Office at Washington, from which he had been suddenly removed by a change in the administration. When I think over this rumor, I cannot adequately express the emotions which seize me. Dead letters! does it not sound like dead men? Conceive a man by nature and misfortune prone to a pallid hopelessness, can any business seem more fitted to heighten it than that of continually handling these dead letters, and assorting them for the flames? For by the cart-load they are annually burned. Sometimes from out the folded paper the pale clerk takes a ring:—the finger it was meant for, perhaps, moulders in the grave; a bank-note sent in swiftest charity:—he whom it would relieve, nor eats nor hungers any more; pardon for those who died despairing; hope for those who died unhoping; good tidings for those who died stifled by unrelieved calamities. On errands of life, these letters speed to death.Ah Bartleby! Ah humanity! End of Project Gutenberg's Bartleby, The Scrivener, by Herman Melville*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARTLEBY, THE SCRIVENER ***This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net 

我在课堂上问：“说到‘现代’这个词，你们第一个想到的是什么？”二、三年级的本科生，七嘴八舌：“手机！”“磁悬浮”！“互联网！”“3D电影！”…… 我知道，他们实际所指的，并非只是手机和磁悬浮，而是被这手机组织起来的人际交往，和被高速火车不断扩大的活动范围。但是，他们脱口而出的，都是技术及其制品的名称，你就不由得不感慨：技术对人生的干预，确是厉害！ 这感慨也是老生常谈，谁不知道呢。但是，泛泛地知道技术改变人生，是一回事，面对具体的状况，能不能记得技术的厉害，又是另一回事了。比如，都知道十年来网络游戏风靡天下，再偏僻的小镇，只要有网吧，附近的十五六岁的少年，就很少没有玩过《魔兽世界》之类、被其深深吸引的。可是，当我们谈论未来——不用很遥远，十年以后吧——的文化、未来的戏剧电影文学等等的时候，有多少人是认真将网络游戏算作一项重要的影响参数的？譬如我，要不是被一位老朋友点醒，大概至今也不会意识到，“网游”和——比如说——文学有什么大关系。 老朋友是小说家，北美名校的比较文学博士，人虽长居纽约，视线却不离中国小说，差不多二十年了，只要听说大陆有哪个年轻人写得有意思，他就会找他的作品来读。去年，在电话里，他忽然说：“有些新的小说，我真读不懂了，这么多年，这还是第一次……”我明白他的意思，他所谓“不懂”，并非指这些小说的字面意思，而是指它们背后的样板。 小说不是孙悟空，凭空从石头缝里蹦出来，再天马行空的作家，真写起来，也是有所依凭、有所本根的，只不过他自己经常不觉得。越是结构严密的现代社会，艺术创作者——不只是文学家——的所依和所本，越容易受社会的支配性文化的影响。家庭氛围、学校教育、人际交往、传媒熏染…… 几乎所有这些层面，荒莽之地都消失了，一切都被纳入结构，虽然不见得都放妥帖了，但也难有在结构的大网之外独自生长的空间。你可以激愤地冲撞这网，但你全身肌肉的紧张，依然暴露出与它的密切关系。甚至你深层的心理和生理组织，都刻着这密网的烙印，而你几乎全部的反抗之心，正是从这些组织中迸发。这就是为什么，当阅读1980年代中期的那些字面上扑朔迷离的“先锋”小说的时候，我们并不真地看不懂。我们知道，是哪些作家——尤奈斯库、博尔赫斯，等等——站在这些作品的后面充当样板，我们也知道，是怎样的社会政治和文化教育，特别将这些作家送上了样板的位置。 因此，当老朋友说自己真的看不懂的时候，他其实是说，在这些小说背后，有一些新的样板，和造就它们的更深层次的新的社会和文化结构，一同出现了。 是不是说得太夸张了？当今世界，大凡有一点记性的，都会强烈感觉到生活它的停滞和陈腐。许多重大的事情，比如，总是有一部分人压迫更多的人，这事情就从过去一直延续到现在，而且好像还要再延续很多年。由此引发的许多人生难题，也就一代接一代地压在人们心头。比如，历史究竟是听权势者的，老百姓只要挤进跟班的队伍，跟着走就行了？还是果真由“人民”创造，我们虽然人微言轻，只要尽力参与，就也能一起决定大伙儿的命运？150年前龚自珍们在京郊寺庙里酒酣耳热辩论的，和今天白领们在写字楼里暗自嘀咕的，不都有一部分，是继续这个难题吗？ 当被这样的感受压得很难受的时候，遇见有人欢欣鼓舞：“进步真快啊，你看咱的“高铁”，时速400公里了！”我们的第一反应，大概都是这么粗鲁的吧：“你不长眼睛啊……” 但是，这只是世界的一面。当代人生的一大诡异之处，就在于让你同时经历两种强烈的感受：一些绝对重大的事情的出乎意料的稳定，和另一些不能说不重要的状况的加速度变化。1950年代，丘吉尔说，只要25年，就可以造就完全不同的一代人；今天，这世界的许多地方，大概不用十年，人跟人就能生出“代沟”来。我就听不止一位的“80后”抱怨：“那些‘90后’啊，看不懂……”套用狄更斯的句式：这是一个不变的时代，也是一个变化越来越快的时代。  在这矛盾现象的底下，是整个社会基础的分裂。一方面，社会各部分的联系越来越紧密，世界越来越一体，支配性的社会结构，因此能更细密地掌控全局，不容有一小片化外之地存在；另一方面，正因为结构之网太大太密，强势力量必不可免地过度膨胀，凡它所欲之物，全力催肥，它没兴趣的，弃之如敝履，人类生活各部分之间长久遗存的平衡和弹性联系，就势必被深度破坏，社会的地面，反而愈益倾斜。这就又会激出许多变化，一潭死水中忽然涌起大团泡沫，径自升腾，也就成了当代的常见景观。 这一类景象看得多了，你甚至会怀疑：当今世界，“一潭死水”的定义是不是已经改了？它不再只是表现为波纹不起、腐色凝集，而是越来越经常地现身为波澜迭起、云气蒸腾？或许，正是靠着泡沫式的速变景象，死水才能继续稳坐潭中央？ 不用说，各种径自升腾者中，“科技”要算头一名。在今天，它也许不再能从达·芬奇式的狂想中，汲取大部分的灵感，无数个人胡思乱想、自由探索宇宙奥秘的时代，至少现在看起来是快要结束了。瞧瞧大学就可以知道，如今的“科技”“研发”，越来越听命于资本的逻辑i，依照市场的节拍踏步。但是，也惟其如此，它反而得到持续的强力推动，能在社会的其他方面都黯淡不堪的情形下，孤身“进步”。 别小看了这“进步”。它绝不只是表现为“3G”或“黑莓”取代前两代手机那样的花拳绣腿。虽然广告上吹嘘的大部分商品的“升级换代”，都是近于蒙人，但我们必须看到，今天这样的“科技”“进步”的根本结果，却绝非只在忽悠人进商场，而是要从根本上改造人。资本逻辑的最终意图，是不断将人改造成更贴切地符合资本增值之需要的劳动力和消费者，因此，“科技”越是被“研发”成资本增值的利器，它就越会对准人的根本处，频出高招。 如今风靡的网络游戏，是否就是这高招之一？ 网络游戏本身是一种商品，它催生了一个庞大的产业，许多公司大赚其钱。但是，就像它的中文缩写——“网游”——的双重词性所暗示的，它不仅是名词，更是动词，不仅意味着一种新的游戏，更意味着一种玩游戏的方式、一种被这个方式引领着蓬勃展开的网上生活。因此，它的真正的下手处，是年轻和年少——乃至年幼——玩家的心智习惯。去年初夏，在意大利帕多瓦的机场候机楼，我就看到一个最多七八岁的金发小孩，目不转睛地玩一款单机游戏。登机了，妈妈多次唤他，差不多要发火了，他却依旧如被钉在游戏机前那样，继续目不转睛——我至今不明白，为什么那座候机楼里会设置这种机器！ 想象一下：这个孩子回家之后，如何急切地溜进自己的小房间，关门、开电脑、一头扑进那个游戏…… 他每天都尽可能挤出时间接着玩；他很快就不满足单机游戏，开始多人“网游”；他就这样一年一年长大，越来越习惯于呆在“网游”的世界里；而同时，他大学毕业、搬出父母家、踏进“真实”的社会了；他甚至开始有点不那么迷恋“网游”了。但是，当他端详眼前这个“真实”社会的时候，他内心的那些在“网游”世界进进出出所养成的习惯——节奏感、空间感、兴奋点、注意力、想象力、逻辑意识、情绪倾向，乃至审美情趣、文化认同和善恶观，却会一齐顺着他的视线进入对象。他越是深入“真实”的现实，可能越分不清什么是虚拟、什么非虚拟。新的感受吸收得越多，过去的记忆就越受刺激、越活跃。老人常说，生活比小说更离奇；他却可能觉得，跟“魔兽”的世界相比，现实根本不值得兴奋…… 绝不只是一个金头发的孩子。全世界各种发色的孩子和非孩子，都正在卷入类似的心理历程，黑头发的中国人，也是一样。这会造成什么后果？随着时间的推移，后果是不是越来越多？今天，已经有不少“网瘾”研究者相信：数千万陷入“网瘾”的中国青少年当中，一半是被“网游”推下去的。ii 韩国和美国则都有评论家认为，目前这样的“网游”的流行，明显助长了凡事从效率出发的“资本主义工具理性”。iii 当上海一家大型网游公司的代表自豪地宣布，“本土文化”将成为他们设计新游戏的核心素材的时候，他显然觉得，这是在培养未来中国人的国家认同。而一位跨国企业的高级经理向我笑谈那些痴迷“网游”的年轻同事：“总是两眼直视前方，眼球好像不习惯左右转动一样！”玩笑的口气，掩不住对他们缺乏对周围人事的热情的忧虑。…… 当然，情况还在发展当中，现在远不到能看清后果的时候。以目前的粗略观察和报告，也还难以判断，网络游戏的风靡，到底跟资本的逻辑是什么关系。1998年，韩国爆发金融危机，大批青年人上线玩《天堂》，“网游”似乎开出了逃避现实的新路口，让人更容易忍受压迫。2010年，一群中国的资深“魔兽玩家”，却发布视频长片《网瘾战争》，辛辣抨击野蛮的“网瘾”治疗、网络管控和“网游”审查制度，掀起了一阵“渴望自由和公正的怒吼”！iv  你也许要说，是被逼得没路走了，才这么“怒吼”的，如果用“国服”能顺畅地玩下去，他们大概会和十年前的韩国玩家一样，继续埋头“宅”着吧？也许是这样。但也许不。现代的各种物质和精神条件，的确加速度地强化了城市人对于室内空间的依赖，在减弱我们的生理能力——例如望远的视力——的同时，让我们误以为外面的事情不重要，有一间房子，让我下班以后舒舒服服地呆着，日子就能过了。但是，另一方面，也是这些条件——至少是其中的一部分，明显降低了不同的室内空间在公共影响力上的悬殊差异。这方面一个最新的例子，就是“维基解密”：瑞典的一个小山洞，竟能在一时间，令白宫都手忙脚乱。当“懦弱”地“宅”在“蜗居”和“蚁居”里的少年和青年人，经由各种网上交往——包括“网游”，体验到无数“细小声音”汇合的效应之后，他们对自己和现实之间力量对比的消极感受，会不会改变呢？  这些年来，我一直相信，互联网正在有力地改变中国。但我也听到许多对网络世界的激烈的批评，看到有愤而关闭博客者说，博客的世界，其实和现实一样糟糕，我已经活在这个现实中了，为什么还要开博客？！我在前面提出的那个问题——今天这样的“网游”的风靡，究竟会给资本的逻辑，也给我们这个社会，带来什么？是并不容易回答的。 但有一点可以肯定，“网游”已经改变了许许多多今天的青年甚至中年人，并且正在更深刻地改变未来的更多的青年和中年人。人变了，别的也都会变。即以中国的文学来说，当那些习惯于进网吧、宅电脑的少年人日后成为文学阅读的主体人群、其中许多更成为未来作家的主体部分的时候，《传奇》和《魔兽世界》们，势必要把尤奈斯库和博尔赫斯们挤到一边，充任文学感受和小说构思的首席样板吧？由此强化的那种习惯在室内的方寸之地和仿佛无边的虚拟世界之间来来回回、并以此组织其他生活感受的心智方式，对于未来的中国文学，也必然有更深远的影响吧？ 这样的或类似这样的变化，并非只是将来时，有的已经发生了。拿2010年的中国文学地图，对比1990年的，谁能说变化小！v  当今社会，资本逻辑的覆盖面越来越大，但也总有它不能一手遮天的地方，江河湖海，依然会游出大大小小的漏网之鱼。所以，面对各种与不变相伴、以其为前提、甚至充任其化身的变化，即便一时看不清其后果，也完全不必悲观。但这有个前提，就是不能继续如我这般迟钝。无论是为了理解和改变世界，还是小而言之，为了读懂那些很大程度上是依照玩《魔兽世界》时养成的心智习惯写出来的诗歌和小说，我们都必须直面现实的变化，而且——因为已经迟钝得太久了——从现在就开始。                                              2010年1月 屯门

利比亚战争远远不只关乎穆阿迈尔•卡扎菲一人的命运。战争的结果将在整个中东地区引起反响，并影响今后数十年的国际政治。一项至关重要的原则处于詹急关头。 支持对利比亚进行外部干预的人认为，他们不仅是在为制止发生在利比亚的暴行而战，而且也是在为未来奠定的里程碑而战。他们想要表明，独裁者可以屠杀本国公民的时代行将结束。 法国哲学家贝尔纳•亨利一莱维表示：“在这件事上，重要的是‘干预的责任’得到了认可。”亨利莱维在利比亚反政府武装与法国总统尼古拉•萨科齐之间发挥了不可思议的桥梁作用。 美国《纽约时报》专栏作家纪思道表达了类似的观点：“当独裁者毁灭本国人民时，世界强国有权利和义务加以干预。”这种观点在2005年得到了联合国的认可。纪思道表示，干预利比亚行动就是“在落实这个新理念”。 “保护的责任”原则(俗称为R2P) 如今发挥了切实的作用——若能这么想该多好。反政府武装正沿着利比亚海岸线快速推进，干预行动的支持者想必欢欣鼓舞。 新兴强国质疑干预主义 然而，在现实中，利比亚战争与其说昭示着新黎明的到来，不如说是标志着自由干预主义的绝唱。残酷的现实是： 最热衷于倡导上述理念的西方强国，将缺乏实施更多海外干预行动所需的经济实力或民众支持。而中国、印度、巴西及其他新兴经济强国，则对干预主义的整套理念深表怀疑。 英法美都投票赞成联合国授权对利比亚动武的决议。但时髦的“金砖四国” 集团——巴西、俄罗斯、印度和中国——却全都投了弃权票。 在中国、印度和巴西等国看来，实施海外干预行动会让资金、人员和影响蒙受危险，得不到什么，却会失去很多。它们的本能是管好自己的事情，致力于发展本国经济实力这一长远目标。 诚然，发生在利比亚的屠杀或许是不幸的——但班加西距离北京或巴西利亚都十分遥远。 情况有些复杂。德国投了弃权票，可这么做等于自行脱离了西方主流。获邀出席下届金砖国家峰会的南非投了赞成票，但其后却高声谴责针对利比亚的轰炸行动。 因此总体局势已然明了。老牌西方强国仍满怀在世界匡扶正义的使命感。而新兴强国则谨慎得多，也更加以自我为中心。 但是，西方盟国是在自身财力不断萎缩的背景下作战的。 英国刚刚宣布了大规模削减国防开支的计划，法国也在竭力控制预算赤字，以维持其福利制度。 对于出兵利比亚这项新使命，美军的不情愿也显而易见。美国总统奥巴马和军方将领都明白，美国总统能够干脆地说出美国将“不惜一切代价”的时代已经结束。 美军参谋长联席会议主席迈克• 马伦曾表示，美国国家安全面临的最大威胁是预算赤字。在后伊拉克和后阿富汗时代，美国民众对海外军事行动的支持也较为有限。 西方国家愈加力不从心 当然，假如利比亚干预行动能够迅速并圆满收场——卡扎菲被赶下台，人们聚集在的黎波里欢呼—一那么，自由干预主义将得到褒奖。 但是，成功埋下的隐患可能不亚于失败。每次成功的干预行动，都将引发新的干预需求，而这种需求向来就不会短缺。 事实上，叙利亚政府枪杀平民事件，就已经提出了这个问题。然而，西方强国面对的干预需求越多，那种越来越力不从心的现象就会愈加明显。 假如有那么一天，“金砖四国”及其他新兴强国改变了对自由干预主义的态度，或许能填平财力与雄心之间的鸿沟。但眼下根本看不到这方面的苗头。 中国政府对外国有权干预一个主权国家、以制止侵犯人权行为的观点非常警惕。经历过车臣问题的俄罗斯亦是如此。 对印度、巴西和南非来说，曾经作为殖民地的历史促使它们对寻求在世界各地使用武力的西方强国的动机抱有怀疑态度。而且，这些新兴强国还不习惯以全球视野来思考问题。 相比之下，英国和法国仍然保持着全球思维的本能，只是缺乏相应的财力支撑。就连当前的全球超级军事强国美国，也正发出越来越不愿意充当世界警察的强烈信号。 在维多利亚时代，英国人曾经唱道： “我们不想打仗，但是一旦开战，我们有船，有人，也有钱。” 干预利比亚行动给人的感觉更像是这首老歌的最后一次回放，而非开创一个新时代的大胆宣言。

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